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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



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Chap. Copyright No. 

Shells .Vi.3 5 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



RAND -MoN ALLY 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR 



COMPOSITION 



Principles and Definitions Derived by Induction. 



/ 



WILLIAM D. HALL. 




TWO COPIES RECEIVED 

CHICAGO AND NEW YORK: 

RAND, McNALLY & COMPANY. 






9246 

Copyright, 1897, by Rand. McNally & Co. 



PREFACE. 



Words are the common means of communication be- 
tween men. Grammar teaches us how to make use of 
words. We acquire unconsciously the ability to speak 
our native tongue, but for an intelligent and sure use 
of language we must study the principles that underlie 
correct expression. These principles are to be found, in 
the forms of good literature, where the best current 
usage is exemplified. Hence, the study of grammar is a 
search for such principles and a practical application of 
them in the expression of thought, oral and written. 

The aim of this work is to present the fundamental 
laws of our language in a reasonable and attractive light. 
The book is concise in statement; both explanation of 
principle and statement of rule are made in simple, 
unteclmical words so far as possible. Where further 
explanation is deemed necessary, the teacher will find it 
easy to add to the text, while, it is believed, sufficient 
discussion has been given without befogging the pupil 
with words. As one difficulty at a time is enough for 
the pupil, the purpose has been to present for his study 
one subject at a time, and to hold him to that subject 
till it is mastered. Thus he is constantly required to 
illustrate what he has learned by writing sentences, which 
serve to fix in his memory each form or principle. 

The method chosen, so far as practicable, is inductive. 
The student is led to observe the facts as they occur, 
and to draw his conclusions. No arbitrary classification 
has been observed; instead each topic is treated where 
the purposes of practical teaching demand. 

Instead of examples of false syntax to be corrected, 
3 



4 PRE FA CE. 

exercises are given for the filling out of sentences by- 
supplying the correct forms of words in blank spaces. 
Moreover, pupils should be encouraged to criticise their 
own verbal expressions, to correct those that are faulty, 
and to give reasons for each correction. 

Simple exercises in composition are inserted at fre- 
quent intervals, to the end that grammar may be 
rendered tributary to the art of expression. This feature 
includes, also, instruction in the writing of simple letters 
and directions for correct paragraphing. 

Many of these exercises derive practical value from 
the fact that they bear directly upon the studies of the 
pupils. Dr. William T. Harris, United States Commis- 
sioner oJ Education, in the '-Report on Correlation of 
Studies," has said: "It is clear that the pupil should 
have a dignified and worthy subject of composition, and 
what is so good for his purpose as the themes he has 
tried to master in his regular lessons ? " 

Selections from the writings of Holmes, Longfellow, 
Franklin, Warner, Scudder, Burroughs. Frank Dempster 
Sherman, and Alice Carv are presented for study by 
the permission of, and by arrangement with, the pub- 
lishers, Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin & Company. The 
extract from Tarbell's Life of Lincoln is offered through 
the courtesy of the publishers of McClure's Magazine. 
The poem by Stevenson is from the "Child's Garden 
of Verses," Charles Scribner's Sons, authorized publishers. 

The publishers desire to express their acknowledg- 
ments to Dr. Edwin C. Hewett, ex-president of the 
Illinois State Normal University, for valuable criticisms 
and many helpful suggestions; they desire, also, to 
express their indebtedness to Prof. Robert Herrick of 
the University of Chicago for a critical examination of 
the early draft of the book. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Language — The Sentence, 9 

Language, 9 

The Sentence, 10 

Essential Parts of the Sentence, 12 

Sentences Classified, 14 

Eules for Punctuation, 15 

Composition — The Elm, 17 

The Parts op Speech, 19 

Noun and Pronoun, 19 

The Noun, 20 

The Classification of Nouns, 20 

Some Short Forms of Nouns, 24 

Several Rules for "Writing Names, 25 

Contractions, 27 

Composition — An Old-Fashioned Schoolroom, .... 29 

The Pronoun, 31 

The Classification of Pronouns, 32 

Composition — Study of a Poem, 34 

Parts of Speech, 36 

Adjective, Verb, and Adverb, 36 

The Adjective, 36 

Classes of Adjectives, 37 

Composition — The Buckwheat, 42 

The Verb, 43 

The Classification of Verbs, 44 

The Series, 49 

Composition — The Return of Rip Van Winkle, .... 50 

The Adverb, 51 

Classes of Adverbs, 52 

tion — The Hyacinth 55 

5 



6 CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Inflection, 58 

Inflection of Nouns and Pronouns — Declension, ... 59 

Person, 59 

Number, 01 

Rules for the Formation of the Plurals, 01 

Composition — How Lincoln Studied Grammar 65 

Rules for the Use of the Personal Pronoun.-. ... 67 

Gender, 68 

Methods of Distinguishing Gender, 69 

Composition — How Robinson Crusoe Built a Boat, . . 73 

Case, 74 

Declension 75 

Composition — The Martial Turkey 77 

Inflection of Adjectives and Adverbs — Comparison, . 79 

Comparison of Adjectives, 7'.' 

Degrees of Comparison 7'.t 

Comparison of Adverbs 

Words Used as Adjectives or Adverbs. ... 

Composition — Storm and Hill 84 

Inflection of the Verb 96 

Mode Mi 

Tense, ss 

Tabular Statement of the Forms of Mode and Tense. 

Composition — Study of a Poem, 98 

Auxiliary Verbs u\ 

Rules for the Proper Use of the Auxiliaries, . . . 95 

Regular and Irregular Verbs . . 97 

Principal Parts of the Verb !iT 

List of Irregular Verbs .99 

Composition — Study of a Poem .108 

Voice log 

Person and Number .105 

Agreement of Verb and Subject 105 

Summary of Inflection ill 

Composition — Heroism \\% 

Verbal- .118 

Participles 114 

Infinitives Hy 

Composition— The Hound .138 



CONTENTS. 7 

PAGE 

Parts of Speech, 125 

Prepositions — Relation Words, 125 

Phrases, 127 

Classification of Phrases, 127 

Composition — A Snowstorm, • . . . . 132 

Propositions, 133 

Clauses, 133 

Classification of Clauses, 134 

The Relative Pronoun, 137 

Composition — Study of a Poem, 139 

Parts op Speech, 142 

Conjunctions and Interjections, 142 

Conjunctions, 142 

Conjunctions Classified, 144 

Interjections, 146 

Quotations, 147 

Rules to be Observed in the Use of Quotations, . . " 148 

Composition — The Wolf and the Lamb 149 

Elements of the Sentence, 151 

Principal and Subordinate Elements, 151 

The Elements Classified, 151 

Principal Elements, 153 

Subordinate Elements, . 156 

Independent Elements, 160 

Rules for Punctuation, 160 

Letter Writing, 161 

Elements Classified According to Structure, .... 164 

Arrangement of the Elements, 169 

Letter Writing, 171 

Classification of the Sentence, 174 

Simple, Complex, and Compound Sentences, .... 174 

Sentences Classified According to Form, 174 

Analysis of the Sentence, 175 

The Simple Sentence — Elements 175 

Letter Writing, 179 

The Complex Sentence — Elements, 188 

Letter Writing, 191 

The Compound Sentence — Analysis, 192 

Selections for Analysis, 194 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR 



COMPOSITION. 



LANGUAGE — THE SENTENCE. 

LANGUAGE. 
1. Thoughts and Words. 

(a) I am thinking of certain persons and I express my 
thoughts briefly in writing, thus: 

1. Mary is writing. 3. George rang the bell. 

2. Lucy is sick. 4. Maud will sing. 

(b) Briefly write your thoughts of birds, dogs, horses, 
and fishes; as, 

1. Birds fly. 3. Oh, see the fishes ! 

2. Dogs bark. 4. Horses run. 



10 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

(c) Express your thoughts of a peach, au apple, the 
sun, a knife; as, 

/. A peach is sweet. 3. How hot the sun shines ! 

.'. The apple is sour. 4. Is the knife sharp? 

What have you used to express your thoughts? 
Words are used to express thoughts. 



2. Language Defined. 

The means by which thoughts are expressed iu words 
ie called Language. Language may be oral or written; 
that is, expressed in spoken words or iu words made by 
characters. The language we use was brought together 
and made into its present form in England, and is. there- 
fore, called the English language. 



THE SENTENCE. 
3. (a) Study the following groups of words: 

1. Gold is a metal. 4. Diamonds rare. 

.'. Lead heavy. 5. Precious stones. 

3. Iron is useful. G. Pearls are beautiful. 

Which of the above groups express complete thought? 
Which do not? 

(b) 1. in the fields 4. our homes 

a vegetable 5. June days 

■ -'. are a tine fruit - . birds in the branches 

Do the above groups of words make complete sense? 
Do they express complete thoughts:- 



TEE SENTENCE. 11 

ic) Other words may be used with each of them to 
complete the sense, thus: 

1. Farmers work in the fields. 4. Our homes are happy. 

2. Corn is a vegetable. 5. June days are bright. 

3. Peaches are a fine fruit. 6. Birds sing in the branches. 



4. The Sentence Defined. 

A group of words so arranged as to express a com- 
plete thought is called a Sentence. 

A Sentence is the expression of a complete thought in 
-words. 

Rule : The first letter of every sentence must be a 
capital. 

EXERCISE. 

5. (a) "Which of the following groups of words are 
sentences? 

1. Boys enjoy coasting. 6. Along the brooksides. 

2. Fishes in the sea. 7. The long wide streets. 

3. Girls love music. 8. Some money is made of gold. 

4. Deer beautiful animals. 9. The air loaded with perfumes. 

5. Words pay no debts. 10. The winds bring perfume. 

(b) Rearrange the following so as to form sentences. 
Begin each sentence with a capital: 

1. trusted honest are men 

2. children friends lack no good 

3. den in the was Daniel lion's 

4. not fear with you am I 

5. Oh yes ! mention we her always 



L2 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



(c) Supply words necessary to make sentences of the 
following: 



1. The mountains 

..'. are high and grand 

3. have disappeared 

4. The moon 

5. The days 

6. will enrich you 

?. many victories 

8. Robert and Mary 

9. The music of the organ 
tO. the time for rot 



(d) Write in brief sentences your thougnts about 
the following: 

horses birds school fair days 

Christmas fishes vacation green fields 



<>. Essential Parts of the Sentence. 



(>i) 1. Money | pays debts. 
9. Knowledge | comes. 



"Wisdom I lingers. 
Still waters | run deep. 



Copy the above sentences and notice that each con- 
sists of two parts. Which part states that about which 
something is said? Which part tells what is said? 

Every sentence must have two parts — that about 
which something is said (assorted), and that which is 
said. The first is called the Subject, and the second 
the Predicate, thus: 

The Subject <>r a sentence Is that about which some- 
thing i-- asserted. 



tring advances. 



2. Spring and Summer advance. 



THE SENTENCE. 13 

(c) Tlie Predicate of a sentence is that which is asserted 
of the subject. 

1. Winter is cold. 2. Winter will come. 



Observe that a subject or a predicate is often more 
than one word. 

EXERCISE. 

7. (a) Mention the subjects and the predicates of the 
following sentences : 

Better days will come. 
Indigo is blue. 
Jane studies history. 

4. Horses draw wagons. 

5. Merchants sell goods. 
Sailors manage the ship. 
Are soldiers patriots? 
Can you paint a lily? 
Were the floods very destructive? 

10. Are the rose and the lily equally beautiful? 

11. Should we love our enemies? 



(b) Assert something using the following as subjects : 

Robert Fulton raindrops sunny days 

Robinson Crusoe the robin happy girls 

bicycles the haymakers the rainbow 



(c) Supply suitable subjects for the following predi- 
cates : 



are dark 


hunt rats 


was a soldier 


is black 


are useful 


made a speech 


are cold 


is an inventor 


told a story 


ripples along 


likes play 


runs fast 



14 PRIMARY (i RAM MAR. 

Obs. I.— A sentence may have two or more subjects; as, 
Arithmetic and grammar are valuable studies. 

c )r.s. II. — A subject may have two or more predicates; as. 
Sleep refreshes and restart 



S. Kinds of Sentences. 

J. Birds sing in the spring. 

2. Will the birds sing in the winter? 

■ ',. Do not frighten the pretty bird. 

4. Feed the poor hungry bird. 

5. Oh, how merrily the birds do sing! 

Does each of the above groups of words express a 
thought? Are all the groups sentences? Which one 
tells something? Which one is the expression of a 
question? Which one is the expression of a command? 
Which one is the expression of a request that some- 
thing be done? Which one expresses a thought with 
great feeling? 

Sentences used in telling something are called 
Declarative, because to state or declare means to tell. 
aces used in asking questions are called Inter- 
rogative, because to interrogate mean- to ask. 

Sentences used in commanding are called Imperative, 
because imperative means commanding. 

aces that express great feeling are called 
Exclamatory, because to exclaim means to cry out. 

«.). Sentences Classified. 

Sentences are classified according to their use, as 
Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, and Exclamatory. 



THE SENTENCE. 15 

(a) A Declarative Sentence is a sentence used in stating 
a fact ; as, 

1. June days are bright and beautiful. 

2. God will remember the world. 

3. Herbert is gathering pond lilies. 

(&) An Interrogative Sentence is a sentence used in ask- 
ing a question ; as, 

1. Are June days bright and beautiful? 

2. Will God remember the world? 

3. Do you see the old farmhouse? 

(c) An Imperative Sentence is a sentence tnat expresses 
a command or an earnest request; as, 

1. Go to thy rest, fair child. 

2. Obey your parents. 

3. Draw a straight line. 
4- Leave me not now. 

(d) An Exclamatory Sentence is a sentence that expresses 
great feeling ; as, 

1. Oh! how fast it rains ! 

2. The child is dying! 

3. You are a brave boy! 

4. How cold you are! 

Notice the punctuation of each kind of sentence- 
above. 

10. Rules for Punctuation. 

1. Close every declarative and every imperative sen- 
tence with a period ( . ). 

2. Close every interrogative sentence with an inter- 
rogation point ( ? ). 

3. Close every exclamatory sentence with an excla- 
mation point ( ! ). 



li; PRIMARY a RAM MAR. 

EXERCISE. 

11. (a) Tell which of the following sentences are 
declarative, which interrogative, which imperative, and 
which exclamatory: also capitalize and punctuate the 

same: 

1. summer has come 

2. -will winter bring snow 

3. the clouds are fleecy 
/,. can you paint a cloud 

5. how delicate the butterfly's wings are 
G. the bells are ringing 

7. how cheerily the bells ring 

8. the air may be weighed 

9. can you tell the story of that pebble 
10. thou too sail on O Ship of State 

(b) Write a declarative sentence about each of the 
following: 

Btars boats stores 

clouds water flower- 

rain sailors children 

(c) Use the following sentences to ask questions, 
introducing new. words if necessary: 

1. The sunbeams dance. 

Clouds float in the air. 
3. Bread nourishes the body. 
4- Students will learn grammar. 
f>. The leaves are falling. 

6. Columbus was a navigator. 

7. Happier days will come. 

S. The water of the ocean is Bait 
9. There are no flowers of pure blue. 
to. The largesl trees grow in California. 

What kind of sentences were they? Into what kind 
have you changed them? 



COMPOSITION. 17 

(d) Write interrogative sentences about the following 
subjects : 

Washington Grant grass 

Lincoln flowers orchards 

(e) Use words necessary to make imperative sentences 
(commands) of the following: 



1. 


■ my slate. 


4- 


kind and polite. 


2. 


the poor bird. 


5. 


kind words to all. 


3. 


your lessons. 


6. 


carol of the birds. 



(/) Imagine you are teachers and then write four 
imperative sentences commanding your pupils to do or 
not to do certain things. 

(ff) Use sentences to express the strong feeling sug- 
gested to you by the following subjects: 

the burning vessel what hungry birds 

the beautiful stars the lame dog 

the vivid lightning what a patriot 

What kinds of sentences expressed these ideas? 



COMPOSITION. 

12. Study the following composition and observe 
the different kinds of sentences used: 

THE ELM. 

Have you ever noticed the elm? Look at the next one you see. 

The American elm is one of the most magnificent trees of the 

United States. From a root which in old trees spreads much above 

the surface of the ground, the trunk rises to a great height in a 

3 



18 PRIMARY CRAM MAR. 

single stem. Here it usually divides into two or three main 
branches, which curve off easily. How stately are these drooping 
branches ! 

The elm grows from the Great Lakes to Georgia, and from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific. Have you heard of the Washington Elm in 
Cambridge, Mass.? It is the most famous elm in this country. 
Under its shade Washington drew his sword on first taking com- 
mand of the American Army. What memories cling to that tree! 

How many declarative sentences are there in this 
composition? What are the imperative sentences? The 
exclamatory? Point out the subject and the predicate 
of each sentence. (See Sec. 6.) 

13. Following the outline below, write what you 
know about the maple, or the willow, or the oak. Leave 
a margin of half an inch on each side of your page. 

Notice that this outline is divided into two parts. Why? 

Outline. 

1. Description — size, general appearance. The branches, the 
leaves, and the trunk. 

2. Where can we find this tree? When do the leaves come 
out? Anything else that you have noticed about this tree. 

14. Following the outline below, write what you 
know of the sentence. See that your sentences are 
closely joined in thought, one with another. 

OrTLINK.. 

1. General definition and two examples. The parts. BUbjecl 
and predicate. Give examples. 

;?. Tell how many classes you have found and explain the use 
of each class. Give examples. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



NOUN AND PRONOUN. 

15. Classes of Words. 

Beautiful daisies peep up everywhere. 

In the above sentence, what word is used as a name? 
What word is used to assert action? What word 
tells the kind of daisies? What word states lioiv the 
daisies peep? How many kinds of words are used in 
this sentence? 

These four kinds of words, together with four other 
kinds, not here mentioned, embrace all the classes ever 
used in making sentences. Hence, according as they 
are used in the sentence, words are divided into the 
following eight classes: 

Nouns. Adjectives. Adverbs. Conjunctions. 

Pronouns. Verbs. Prepositions. Interjections. 

The above are called the Parts of Speech. They are 
the parts into Avhich all written or spoken language 
(speech) is divided, just as ears, arms, and legs are parts 
of the human body. 

19 



20 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

THE NOUN. 

16. Read the following sentences and observe each 
word used as a name: 

1. Ruth gave Esther a pencil. 

2. Ostriches are found in Africa. 

3. Study improves the mind. 

4. "Bad habits gather by unseen degrees. 

As brooks make rivers, rivers run to seas." 

Mention the words used as names in these sentences. 
Which words are names of persons? What word is the 
name of a country? Which are names of objects you 
can see? Which are names of things you can think of 
but can not see? 

Words like seas, rivers, ostriches, Africa, brooks. 
mind, degrees, Ruth, Esther, habits, and pencil, used as 
names of persons, places, objects, or ideas, are called 
Nouns. The word noun means name. 

A Noun is a word used as a name. 



The Classification of Nouns. 



17. Find nineteen nouns in this list of words: 



William 


shallow 


bicycle 


stars 


thought 


Europe 


paper 


beautiful 


bright 


water 


European 


thin 


oyster 


statue 


city 


ocean 


soft 


raw 


marble 


Chicago 


deep 


chariot 


road 


greed 


courage 


river 


large 


long 


sweet 


flock 



What nouns in the above list of words are names that 
belong to many objects of the same kind ; that is, to a 



CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 21 

class of objects? What nouns are names of particular 
persons? What of particular places? 

Every river is called a river, but not every man may 
be called William. 

Nouns like ocean, river, paper, chariot, etc., are called 
Common Nouns. Nouns like William, Europe, Chicago, 
etc., are called Proper Nouns. 

Obs. — The word proper means one's own; hence a proper name 
is one's own name. 

Which nouns name tilings that can not be perceived 
by the senses? 

All nouns are included in the two classes, Common 
and Proper. 

18. The Common Noun. 

A Common X oun is a name common to all of a elass of 
objects; as, 

box hat pen knife 



EXERCISE. 

19. Write four nouns that are names of things kept 
in a grocery. 

Write five nouns that are names of different kinds of 
cloth, and three that are names of materials of which 
money is made. 

Write five nouns that are names of tools used by a 
carpenter. 

Write five nouns that are names of things you can 
think about but can not perceive with the senses ; as, 
bravery, habit. 



22 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

20. The Proper Noun. 

A Proper Noun is the name of a particular person, 
place, or thing ; ;>S, 

Henry Congress Chicago Ohio 

EXERCISE. 

21. (a) Write five nouns that are names of particular 
cities and five that are names of particular States. 

Write four sentences, using proper nouns as Bubjecte. 
Write four sentences, using common nouns as subjects. 

% Copy the following sentences and underline all 
nouns: 

1. A good name is a great treasure. 

2. Humboldt discovered the potato in Mexico. 

3. A word of three syllables is a trisyllable. 

4. Nature teaches beasts to know their friends. 

5. Music is the medicine of the mind. 

6. Many precious stones come from Africa. 

7. Should every line of poetiy begin with a capital? 
8 A bobolink and a robin sang a sweet duct. 

9. Fame is the fragrance of heroic deeds. 
10. The White House is the residence of our President. 

22. Collective and Abstract Nouns. 

Under common nouns are usually classed Collect ire 
and Abstract Nouns. 

(a) 1. A committee of five was appointed. 
S. Our army was victorious. 
■ '. We saw a fleet of shins. 



CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 23 

Is committee the name of an individual or a collection 
of individuals? Does army mean a soldier or a collection 
of soldiers? What make a fleet? 

Nouns like committee, army, and fleet, that name a 
collection of objects, are called Collective Nouns. 

A Collective Noun is the name of a collection of objects. 

(b) 1. Honesty is respected. 

2. Goodness is its own reward. 

3. I enjoy the study of music. 

Do you know an honest man? What word is the 
name for the quality that an honest person has? Is 
honesty the name of a person or a quality of a person? 
Does music name an abstract study? 

Words like honesty, goodness, and music, that name a 
quality of an object considered by itself, are called 
Abstract Nouns. 

An Abstract Norm is the name of a quality considered 
by itself. 

EXERCISE. 

23. (a) Mention the collective and abstract nouns in 
the following: 

1. The team has run away. 

2. A herd of cattle is passing. 

3. The family rejoiced at his success. 
I). True bravery should be rewarded. 
5. The class is studying history. 

6'. Cleanliness is next to godliness. 

7. Not failure but low aim is crime. 

S. The army followed its leader. 

9. Honor is the subject of my story. 



24 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

6. Beauty is admired. 

7. The horse has great strength. 

8. We overtook a band of gypsies. 
0. Coasting is fine sport. 

10. He gave me a bunch of grapes. 

11. Our class consists of ten pupils. 

12. Pride goeth before a fall. 

13. The congregation rose and sang. 

14. All the hearts of men were softened 
By the pathos of his music; 

For he sang of peace and freedom. 
Sang of beauty, love, and longing; 
Sang of death and life undying. 

— Longfellow. 

(b) Fill the following blanks with appropriate words; 
then construct sentences, using four of these nouns: 

crowd of suite of 

regiment of crew of 

swarm of gang of 

bevy of squad of 



Some Shoet Forms or Nouxs. 
24. Names. 

Write your full name. 

Write the name of your father, brother, and sister. 

Which part of each of these names is the same for 
all the members of the family? 

The last part of a name is called the Family name, 
or Surname; as, 

Abraham Lincoln. Daniel Webster. 

The first part of a name is railed the Given name; as, 
George Curtis. William Shakspere. 



SHORT FORMS OF NOUNS. 25 

25. Several Rules for Writing- Names. 

1. Begin all proper nouns ivith a capital; as, 

George Washington. Thomas Jefferson. 

2. Begin with a capital all titles of honor and of 
respect when applied to particular persons; as, 

Hon. Charles Sumner. Mrs. Stowe. 

3. Begin with a capital letter the names of the days 
of the week, the months, and the principal holidays; as, 

Christmas comes on "Wednesday, December 25. 
Decoration Day comes on Monday, May 30. 

26. Initials. 

Write the name of a person who has two or three 
given names. Eewrite it, using only the first letter of 
each of the given names. 

Write the name of this country ; rewrite it, using 
only the first letter of each part of the name. 

The first letter of a word is called its Initial. 

Rule : Initials of proper nouns should be capital let- 
ters; as, 

W. H. H. Holdredge. 
Go to Cincinnati, O. 

Write the initials of your own name. 
Write the initials of the name of your grocer; your 
physician ; two statesmen. 



26 FBI MARY GRAMMAR. 

27. Abbreviations. 

Dr. Stanford visited Gen. and Mrs. Smith in Washington. D. C. 

In this sentence the first word is read Doctor, but 
is written with the first and last letters only. Gen., 
Mrs., and D. C, are short ways of writing General 
Mistress (pronounced Missis), and District of Columbia. 
aud are called Abbreviations. 

Kile: Begin abbreviations, generally, with a capital 
and close them with a period. 

EXERCISE. 

28. Write the following abbreviations, placing after 
each its equivalent: 



Mr. 

Dr. 

Col. 

Maj. 

St. 

Av. 

Capt. 

Gov. 

Pres. 

Sec. 

Prof. 

Rev. 

Hon. 



Mister. 

Doctor or Debtor. 

Colonel. 

Major. 

Saint or Street. 

Avenue. 

Captain. 

Governor. 

President. 

Secretary. 

Professor. 

Reverend. 

Honorable. 



A. D. In the year of our Lord. 

A. M. Before noon. 
P. M. Afternoon. 

B. C. Before Christ. 

M. D. Doctor of Medicine. 

R. R. Railroad. 

V. s. United States. 

('. 0. D. Cash (or Collect) on Delivery. 



P. S. 
P. O. 
M. 
M. C. 

Atty. 



Postscript. 

Post Office. 

Xoon . 

.Member of Congress. 

Attorney. 



Commit those abbreviations to memory. You may 
use abbreviations for the days of the week and the 
months of the year, except May, June, and July. 

CFse at least six of the above in sentences. 



CON TEA TIONS. 27 

29. Superscriptions. 

"Write your name and address, thus: 
Gertrude E. Mason, 









Clinton, 


Illinois. 


Alice 


R. 


Reynolds. 

802 Warren Av., 

Chicago, 

Illinois. 



Notice the use of the comma and the period. 

Write the name and address of a friend in some city 
in this State. 

Write the name and address of the Governor of your 
State; of the Mayor of your town; of two members of 
your State Legislature. 

A name and address written as above, when placed 
upon an envelope, is called a Superscription. 



CONTRACTIONS. 
30. I'm read}^. We're going. They're playing. 

(a) Notice in the above that letters are omitted from 
certain words and the apostrophe (') used to show 
such omission, thus uniting two words in the form of 
one. Such short forms are called Contractions. 



Contractions are shortened forms of words in which 
the apostrophe is used in place of letters omitted; as. 



They're for fhey arc. 



28 PUT MART GRAMMAR. 

(b) In the following contractions tell what words are 
united with not to form contraptions and where the 
apostrophe is placed: 

1. She isn't here. 3, He doesn't know. 

S. Aren't yon ready'.' 4. They don't see us. 



EXERCISE. 

31. (a) Copy the following allowable contractions. 
Tell what words are united and what letters are omitted: 

1. I've been to Boston. 5. He'll tell the truth. 

2. We're going to Canton. >;. There's no place like home. 

3. They're both truants. 7. I thought 'twas right. 

//. It's too bad. X. What's the matter ! 



(b) Write sentences using the following words with 
not in the contracted form: 

is was has had does could 

are were have do did would 

(c) Write four declarative sentences containing, (1) 
wasn't, (2) weren't, (3) doesn't, (4) don't. 

{(l) Write four interrogative sentences containing. 
(1) wasn't, (2) weren't, (3) doesn't, (4) don't. 

(e) Write five sentences using proper contractions. 



Oi?s. — Contractions should be used sparingly, especially in 
writing. Can't, sha'n't, and won't may be used in writing as well 
as in speaking. 



COMPOSITION. 29 

CAUTIONS. 

1. Never use ain't, hain't, nor tain't. 

2. Never use wa'n't for wasn't or weren't. 

3. Never use mayn't, mightn't, mustn't, and 'twill. 

4. Never use don't for doesn't when you speak or write of 
one person or thing; as, 

He doesn't skate (not don't skate). 



COMPOSITION. 

32. Study the following. Lay it aside and repro- 
duce it in language of your own: 

AN OLD-FASHIONED SCHOOLROOM. 

Now imagine yourselves, my children, in Master Ezekiel 
Cheever's schoolroom. It is a large, dingy room, and is lighted 
by windows that turn on hinges and have little diamond-shaped 
panes of glass. The scholars sit on long benches with desks before 
them. At one end of the room is a great fireplace, so very spacious 
that there is room enough for three or four boys to stand in each of 
the chimney corners. 

It is a winter's day when we take our peep into the schoolroom. 
See what great logs of wood have been rolled into the fireplace, and 
what a broad, bright blaze goes leaping up the chimney! And every 
few minutes a vast cloud of smoke is puffed into the room, which 
sails slowly over the heads of the scholars, until it gradually settles 
upon the walls and ceilings. 

Now, do you see the venerable schoolmaster, severe in aspect, 
with a black skullcap on his head, like an ancient Puritan, and the 
snow of his white beard drifting down to his very girdle? What 
boy could dare to play, or whisper, or even glance aside from his 
work, while Master Cheever is on the lookout from behind his 
spectacles ? For such offenders, if any such there be, a rod of birch 
is hanging over the fireplace, and a heavy ferule lies on the master's 
desk. 

— Nathaniel Hawthorne. 



30 PRIMARY Gli' AM MAR. 

Mention and classify all the nouns in the foregoing 
composition. 

Notice that in this story the sentences are arranged 
in three principal groups or divisions. Study cadi group 
carefully. 

Do the sentences in each of these divisions all relate 
to the same topic of the subject? Such divisions in 
a composition are called Paragraphs and should con- 
tain nothing but what relates to some one part of the 
subject. 

A Paragraph is one of the divisions of a prose com- 
position and may consist of a single sentence or a 
group of sentences. 



33. Following the outline below, write a short com- 
position on "Our Schoolroom." Use brief sentences 
and divide your matter as in the outline. 

Outline. 

1. Description — size, doors, windows, curtains, etc. 

2. Furniture — desks, maps, globes, reference library. 

3. Other things you think it should contain. 



34. Eecall to mind what you have learned of nouns; 
then, following the outline below, write what you know 
of them in the form of a composition. 

Outline. 

1. Definition — what classes? Define each class and give 
examples. 

,.'. Common nouns — how many classes of'.' Define each class 
and give examples, 



THE PRONOUN. 81 

THE PRONOUN. 

35. (a) Mention the words in the following sentences 
that are needlessly repeated: 

1. Lilian loves Lilian's mother. 

2. Hazel says Hazel will sing. 

3. John said that John -would write. 

4. Mary told Henry to lead Henry's sister. 

{b) Rewrite the above sentences in the following man- 
ner, so as to avoid the needless repetition of words: 

1. Lilian loves her mother. 

2. Hazel says she will sing. 

3. John said that lie would write. 

4- Mary told Henry to lead Ms sister. 

What word in the first sentence takes the place of 
Lilian? What word takes the place of Hazel? What 
words take the place of John and Henry ? 

(c) What word in the following sentence is used to 
ask for a person not known by the speaker: 

Robert asks. " Who will lead?" 

Words like her, I, lie, his, and who are called Pro- 
nouns. The word pronoun means for a noun. 

(d) A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; as, 

1. Henry said he would attend our school. 

2. Martha found her brother in his study. 



32 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

(e) The noun for which the pronoun stands is called 
its Antecedent; as, 

1. Martha found her brother in his study. 

2. The boys took their guns with them. 

3. Jennie is happy because she is good. 

4. The maid washed her dishes and put them in the closet. 

The antecedent is sometimes expressed, sometimes 
understood. 



The Classification of Pronouns. 

36. The Kinds of Pronouns. 

There are four kinds or classes of pronouns: Per- 
sonal, Interrogative, Relative, and Adjective. 

37. A Personal Pronoun is one representing the 
speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing 
spoken of. 

The personal pronouns are: 

1. Simple; as, 

,_ \ I, me, mine, 

The speaker. -j we ug ourg 

The person j thou, thee, thine, 

spoken to. j ye, you, yours. 

!he, him, his, 
she, her, hers, 
it, its, 
they, them, theirs. 

2. Compound, those that add self or selves; as, 

myself thyself yourself 

himself herself itself 

ourselves yourselves themselves 



CLASSIFICATION OF PRONOUNS. 33 

38. An Interrogative Pronoun is one used in asking 
a question ; as, 

Who has my slate? What will you have? 

Which is correct? Whom do you see? 



39. A Limiting Adjective which represents a noun 
understood is an Adjective Pronoun; as, 

1. This hat is mine; that is yours. 

2. Some apples are sweet; others are sour. 

3. All will go; none will object. 
If.. Many will hear; few will heed. 

5. You may do either; I will do neither. 

6. Will you take one or both? 

Write four similar sentences, each containing an 
adjective pronoun. 

For the Relative Pronouns, see page 137. 

EXERCISE. 

40. (a) Mention the pronouns in the following sen- 
tences and name the antecedent of each: 

1. Joseph brought his book and laid it on the table. 

2. Lafayette volunteered his services. 

3. Sarah carelessly lost her book on her way to school. 

4. The town lost its mayor, and the school its best friend. 

5. The girls asked their mother to help them. 

6. Donald, have you found your pencil? 

7. All desire wealth and some acquire it, but few use it aright. 

(b) Name the antecedents of all the pronouns found 
in the examples on pages 31, 32, and 33. 



34 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

COMPOSITION. 

41. Copy this poem and notice that the first word 
of each line begins with a capital: 

WISHES. 

I often sit and wish that I 
Could be a kite up in the sky. 
And ride upon the breeze, and go 
Whatever way it chanced to blow. 
Then I could look beyond the town, 
And see the river winding down, 
And follow all the ships that sail 
Like me before the merry gale, 
Until at last with them I came 
To some place with a foreign name. 
— From "Little-Folk Lyrics" by Frank Dempstek Sherman. 

Each line of a poem is called a verse. How many 
verses in this poem? 

A number of verses grouped together is called a 
stanza. How many stanzas in this poem? 

Notice the words which rhyme. How many verses 
are there to each rhyme? 

How many nouns can you find? Underline each 
noun once; each pronoun twice. 

This little poem tells of what wish? What would 
the wisher do if he were a kite? Do you ever wish to 
be something you are not? To travel and see things 
and places of which you read? 

Write the little poem in such a way that it will be 
a plain prose story, without verse or rhyme. 

Write a story of ten or more lines telling some of 
your wishes. 



COMPOSITION. 35 

The following wishes may be suggestive: 

To be a learned man. To be a millionaire. 

To sail the seas. To be a physician. 



42. Following the outline below, write what you 
know of the pronoun. 

Outlike. 

1. Definition — give examples. 

2. Classification — define each class and give examples of each. 

3. Why they are used. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 

ADJECTIVE, VERB, AND ADVERB. 

THE ADJECTIVE. 



43. (a) Study carefully the following sentences and 
mention all the nouns: 

1. Hear that robin's happy song! 

2. The birds sought their leafy shelter. 

3. Have you read the fourth stanza? 

"Would the nouns song and robin, standing alone, tell 
what kind of song or what robin is mentioned? What 
kind of song is mentioned? What kind of shelter? 
What robin is referred to? Which stanza? Words like 
happy, leafy, that, and fourth, used to modify the 
meaning of a noun, are called Adjectives. Modify means 
change. 

ip) An Adjective is a word used to modify the meaning 
of a noun or pronoun; as, 

1. The foolish old crow tried to sing. 
.?. Two students study English literature. 
3. Lincoln emancipated four million African slaves. 
Ji. Reading makes a full man. writing an exact man. 
5. Four fast Kentucky horses drew th chariot. 
36 



THE ADJECTIVE 37 

44. Classes of Adjectives. 

In sentence 5 (b), of the examples given on the oppo- 
site page, what adjectives modify horses by denoting the 
kind, or quality, of the animals mentioned? What 
adjective modifies horses, and what modifies chariot, 
without denoting kind, or quality? 

Adjectives, like fast and Kentucky, used to modify by 
denoting quality, are called Qualifying ; those, like four 
and the, used to modify without denoting quality, are 
called Limiting. Thus adjectives are classified as Quali- 
fying and Limiting. 

45. The Qualifying- Adjective. 

(«) A Qualifying Adjective is one which modifies the 
meaning of a noun or pronoun toy denoting quality ; as, 

1. We sell large, ripe, juicy oranges. 

2. He was an honorable man, an amiable gentleman. 

3. We plucked four large oranges. 

4. The breezy morn died in the silent noon. 

ib) Adjectives derived from proper nouns are called 
Projjer Adjectives and should begin with capital let- 
ters; as. 

1. We study English law. 

2. The German language is rich in literature. 

3. We have a span of Mexican ponies. 

EXERCISE. 

46. Form a proper adjective from each of the fol- 
lowing proper nouns: 

America Europe Greece China France 

Asia England Rome Christ Cuba 



88 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

47. The Limiting Adjective 1 . 

A Limiting- Adjective is one which modifies the meaning 
of a noun or pronoun without denoting quality; as. 



1. We have studied the first three lessons. 
This apple is mine, that (apple) is yours. 
I have taught you many things. 
A few stories I will tell you. 
"We have some news to relate. 



Obs. — The word limit means to restrict — to draw a boundary 

line around. 

EXERCISE. 

48. (a) Classify the adjectives in the following sen- 
tences; tell what each one limits or qualifies: 

1. The groves were God's first temples. 

2. That question is now settled. 

3. Such punishment is severe. 

4. The mountains showed their gray heads. 

5. So the little coral workers, 

By their slow but constant motion. 
Have built up those pretty islands 
In the distant dark-blue ocean. 

G. Up from the meadows rich with com. 
Clear in the cool September morn, 
The clustered spires of Frederick stand 
Green-walled by the hills of Maryland 

(b) Write sentences using the following nouns limited 
by one or more adjectives: 

wind oak statue speaker task 

storm elm lightning soldiers street 



THE ADJECTIVE. 39 

(c) Write sentences using tlie following words as 
adjectives: 

angry shady few tall 

dead all merry small 

slow many dark tame 

(d) Combine Avith each of the following words as 
many adjectives as you can that appropriately limit 
their meaning: 

lane store moon river fields 

pasture star comet ocean prairie 

(e) Name adjectives of an opposite meaning from 
the following: 

many bright noisy polite feeble 

busy dark brave careful swift 

(/) Write sentences containing the following nouns 
modified by one limiting adjective and two or more 
qualifying adjectives: 

Model. —Two short happy weeks. 

lark roses fruit Indians lambs 

bees clouds rogues gentleman steps 



49. Limiting Adjectives Classified. 

Limiting adjectives are classified as Article, Nu- 
meral, and Interrogative. 

The Article Adjectives are a or an and the. A and 
an designate some one, but no particular, object, and are 
called Indefinite Articles. * 



40 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

The designates particular objects and is called a 
Definite Article. 

A is used before a consonant sound and an before a 
vowel sound; as, 

a pen a cat a jnup a hat 

an awl an elk an inch an hour 

Oijs. — The letter "h," when initial, is silent in sonic words, 
as, hour, honor, etc., but sounded in others, as, Jmt. head, etc. 

EXERCISE. 

50. (a) Read orally the following words, using 
before each the correct indefinite article: 



hat 


university 


honor 


orchard 


onion 


knife 


plough 


box 


honest 


envelope 


day 


hero 


gem 


good 


hunter 


oak 


orphan 


union 


ox 


eulogy 



(b) In the following sentences mention the limiting 
adjectives and the adjective pronouns: 

1. Some men are rich; some are poor. 

2. Many diamonds are yellow; few are blue. 

3. All men should vote; none should refuse. 

4. You may buy either lot; I will buy neither. 

5. Can you solve that problem? This is easy. 

6. Have you another book? Give me one. 

7. Here are both books; yon may have either. 
S. One stanza was read; one was sung. 

(r) Write four sentences, using in each an adjective 
pronoun, and four using the same word as a limiting 
adjective. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 41 

51. A Numeral Adjective is one -which limits by de- 
noting number; as, 

1. Four boats are anchored in the bay. 

2. He has a coach and six horses. 

3. Read the first two stanzas. 

4. He has a threefold object in this. 

EXERCISE. 

52. Write sentences using the following numeral 
adjectives: 

one three double 

first third twofold 



53. An Interrogative Adjective is one used in asking 
questions. 

The interrogative adjectives are which, whose, and 
what. They accompany the word which they limit. 

Which book shall we read? 
Whose composition is the best? 
What pictures did you see? 



1. 



EXERCISE. 

54. Decide which of the italicized words in the 
following sentences are interrogative adjectives and which 
are interrogative pronouns: 

Which road did you take? 
Which was the better? 
Whose are those books? 
Whose pens are those? 

5. What will you sing? 

6. What animals did you see? 

7. Of what did he speak? 
Of wliat plans did be speak? 



42 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

COMPOSITION. 

55. Study the following composition. Notice each 
adjective and what it limits: 

THE BUCKWHEAT. 

Often, after a thunder-storm, when one passes a field in which 
buckwheat is growing, it appears quite blackened and singed. 
Whence has it received that color? The countryman says, "It got 
that from lightning." But I will tell you what the Sparrow told 
me about it, and the Sparrow heard it from an old Willow Tree 
which stood by a Buckwheat field. 

On all the fields round about, grain was growing, not only rye 
and barley, but also oats; yes, the most capital oats, which, when 
ripe, look like a number of little yellow canary birds sitting upon 
a spray. The grain stood smiling, and the richer an ear was. the 
deeper did it bend in pious humility. 

But the Buckwheat, in the field exactly opposite to the old 
Willow Tree, did not bend at all, like the rest of the grain, but 
stood up proudly and stiffly. 

"I'm as rich as any corn-ear," said he. ''Moreover, I'm very 
much handsomer; my flowers are beautiful as the blossoms of the 
apple tree. It's quite a delight to look upon me and mine. Do you 
know anything more splendid than we are. you old Willow Tree?" 

And the Willow Tree nodded his head, just as if he would 
have said, "Yes, that's true enough!" 

But the Buckwheat spread itself out in mere vainglory, and 
said, "The stupid tree! he's so old that the grass grows in his 
body. " 

Now a terrible storm came on; but the Buckwheat stood erect 
in its pride. 

"Shut up your flowers and bend jour leaves," said the old 
Willow Tree. "Don't look up at the lightning when the cloud 
bursts. Even men do not do that, for in the lightning one may 
look into heaven, but the light dazzles even men; and what would 
bappen to us if we dared to do so — we, the plants of the field, 
that are much less worthy than they?" 

"Much less worthy!" cried the Buckwheat in its pride and 
vainglory. "Now I'll just look straight up into heaven." 



THIS VERB. 43 

When the storm had passed by, the flowers and the crops 
stood in the still, pure air, quite refreshed by the rain; but the 
Buckwheat, burned coal-black by the lightning, was now like a 
dead weed upon the field. 

— Adapted from Hans Christian Andersen. 

Lay aside the book and reproduce the above story, 
using other appropriate adjectives in place of the ones 



56. Write a composition on what you have learned 
of the adjective, following the outline given below. 

Outline. 

1. Definition. Examples. 

2. Classes of adjectives, with examples of each. 

3. A and an — how used? 

4- Proper adjectives — how formed? 



THE VERB. 

57. Observe the several parts of speech in the 

following sentences : 



1. The birds sing. 


4. The child sleeps. 


2 . Frogs leap. 


5. The boy is happy. 


3. Sunlight gleams. 


6. He is reading a story 



Which words are nouns? Which are adjectives? 



onoun 



Which is a pi"' 

Which words assert action? Which word in sentence 
4 asserts a condition or state of the subject? In sen- 
tence 5, what word asserts a state of existence without 
action? 

Words like sing, leap, gleams, sleeps, is, and is read- 
ing are called Verbs. 



44 PRIMARY C RAM MAR. 

A Verb Is a word used to assert action, being:, or state. 

To assert means to affirm — to join to the Biibjecl what 

is said of it. 

If the verbs be omitted from the foregoing sen- 
tences, would anything be said about the birds, <>r 
frogs, or other subjects? 

Every sentence mnst contain a predicate; every pred- 
icate must contain a verb. A verb may consist of more 
than one word, as in sentence 6, page 4."!. 

EXERCISE. 

58. (a) Mention the verbs in the following sentences: 

J. The -whole earth smiles. 

..'. The south wind blows so softly. 

3. Gold will be received in payment. 

4. Words will pay no debts. 

5. The pitcher has been broken. 

6. Stars dazzle; planets shine steadily. 

(b) Express the thoughts these words suggest to you, 
using them in sentences: 

dance dawns graze tloat 

climb nourishes blooms BOW 

(c) Assert something of each of the following subjects: 

kings lions sailors blood 

robins tigers storms clouds 

The Classification of Verbs. 

59. The Copulative Verb. 

1. Jefferson was a statesman. S. She looks pale. 

2. Snow is white. 4. He seems honest. 



CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS. 45 

Name the subjects of the foregoing sentences. Name 
the verbs. What noun follows the verb was to describe 
the subject and complete the predicate of sentence 1? 
What adjectives are used with the -verbs is, looks, and 
seems, to describe the subjects of each? 

Words used like statesman, white, pale, and lionest, 
attribute or attach some quality or class to the subject, 
and are called Attributes. 

Verbs like was, is, looks, and seems, used to join an 
attribute to the subject, are called Copulative Verbs. 
The word copulative means joining. 



A Copulative Verb is one that requires the addition of 
an attribute, describing the subject, to form a predicate; 



am 


is 


are 


was 


were 


been 


seems 


appears 


looks 


became 



These are a few of the verbs most commonly used as 
copulatives. Use them in sentences, orally expressed, or 
written. 

The verb used to assert the mere existence of the 
subject is be; as, 

I am be is we are tbey icere 

Obs. — Wben be is used to connect tbc attribute to tbe subject 
it is called the Copula. 

60. The word used with the copulative verb to 
form the predicate may be, 

1. A noun or pronoun; as, 

1. George is an artist. 3. It was he or she. 

2. Clara is a singer. 4.. Horses are quadrupeds. 



46 PHI MARY GRAMMAR. 

2. An adjective; as, 

1. Sugar is sweet. 3. John was studious. 

2. Charles appears happy. 4.. The man seems prosperous. 

Obs. — Nouns used with the copulative verb to form the simple 
predicate are often called Predicate Nouns. Adjectives thus used 
are called Predicate Adjectives. They are both attributive words 
and are called attributes in the predicate. 









EXERCISE. 








61. (a) Write 
following nouns: 

statesman 
merchants 


sentences, usin 

tailor 
painter 


g as attributes 

student 
blacksmith 


the 


(b) Wri 
adjectives 


tte sentences, 

busy 

happy 

calm 


using as att 

soft 

hungry 

merry 


ributes the 

bard 
easy 
long 


follov 


dug 



(c) Use appropriate adjectives as attributes in the 
following blanks: 

Apples are Grapes are 

The night was Sugar is 

The day is The flowers are 

The men were Some days must be 

Obs. — When the verb be is used to assert mere existence, it is not 
copulative, but finite, and becomes the simple predicate of the 
sentence. When thus used, it is generally preceded by there <>r 
followed by limiting words denoting place; as, 

1. He is in Boston. 5. Behind the clouds is the sun. 

2. Were you there? 6. Our times are in His hands. 

3. I am on the way. 7. Wast thou there? 

4. They will be at home. 8. There was a storm. 



CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS. 47 

62. Transitive Verbs. 

(a) 1. John struck James. 

2. The girls heard the concert. 

3. Grant defended his country. 

Name the subject-nouns in the above sentences. 
Name the verbs. Whom did John strike? What did 
the girls hear? What did Grant defend? Would the 
verbs struck, heard, and defended express the meaning 
intended without the use of the nouns James, concert, 
and country? 

Verbs like struck, heard, and defended are called 
Transitive Verbs, because the action expressed by many 
of them passes over from the actor to the person or 
thing acted upon. Transitive means passing over. 

(b) A Transitive Verb is one which expresses an action 
exerted on some object; as, 

1. Dora loves her mother. 

2. Love needs no words. 

A word thus used with a transitive verb is called its 
Object. It is so called because it names the object 
usually affected by the action expressed by the verb. 

(c) Transitive verbs may have one or more objects; as, 

1. Esther studies music. 

2. Ned enjoys music and dancing. 

3. Oh, see the birches, oaks, pines, and firs! 

63. Intransitive Verbs. 

{a) 1. Morning dawns. 3. Showers descend. 

2. Water ripples. I,. Flowers bloom. 



48 PR I MARY GRAMMAR. 

Name the subject and the predicate of each of these 
sentences. What is asserted of morning? What of water f 
Does morning dawn anything? Do the verbs dawns, 
ripples, descend, and bloom express actions exerted on 
objects? 

Verbs like dawns, ripples, descend, and bloom, express- 
ing action exerted on no object, are called Intransitive 
Verbs. 



{]>) An Intransitive Verb is one which does not express 
its action or state as exerted on an object; as, 

1. The snow falls lightly. 

..'. Lilies bloom on the water. 

3. Leaves fade under autumn skies. 

4. Precious stones are fadeless. 

(c) Some verbs may be used both transitively and 
intransitively, thus: 

Transitively— 1. He runs a factory. 

Intransitively — S. The thief runs away. 

Transitively— 3. The boy flies his kite. 

Intransitively — 4- The bird flies in the air. 

Transitively— 5. The girls sung a song. 

Intransitively — 6. The girls sung well. 



EXERCISE. 

64. («) In the following sentences mention the 
subject-nouns or pronouns and classify the verbs used; 
name also the object of each transitive verb: 

1. The crocus blooms earl}'. 

2. The south wind blows softly. 

3. Horses eat grass, hay, and corn. 

4. He struck the ball fiercely. 



THE SERIES. 49 

(b) Write sentences, using transitively the following 
verbs : 

study see found 

hear taste broke 

smell speaks love 

(c) Write sentences, using intransitively the following 
verbs : 

turn creep speaks 

play shine went 

climb fall sleep 



(d). Write sentences, using the following verbs (1) 
transitively, (2) intransitively: 



sings 


stops 


writes 


ran 


rings 


swim 


study 


burns 


walks 



THE SERIES. 

65. A succession of three or more words in the 
same construction, either as subjects, predicates, or modi- 
fiers, is called a Series; as, 

1. Wheat, oats, rye, and barley grow in the fields. 

2. Our country is free, strong, and great. 

3. Children run, jump, sing, or dance. 

4. Birds fly merrily and swiftly and gracefully. 



Rule: The comma (,) is used to separate the parts 
or members of a series, unless they are all united by 
connectives, as in the fourth sentence. 
4 



50 P 7? IMA J! 7 RA M MA R. 

EXERCISE. 

66. Name the subject-nouns and pronouns in the 
following sentences. Classify the verbs and name the 
words in each series: 

1. The crocus, the violet, and the buttercup bloom early. 

2. Empires rise, flourish, and decay. 

3. They played ball, croquet, and dominoes. 

/,. The path up the mountain is narrow, rough, and thorny. 

5. Our army fought long, fiercely, and well. 

6. Washington was a hero, brave, faithful, and courageous. 

7. Christmas, New Year's, and Thanksgiving are holidays. 



COMPOSITION. 

67. Eead the following description of the way in 
which Kip Van Winkle was received at his home after 
he had been away for twenty years. Observe the verbs 
and the adjectives used in a series: 

THE RETURN OF RIP VAN WINKLE. 

The appearance of Rip, with his long, grizzled beard, and his 
old, rusty gun. soon attracted the attention of all the people of 
the village. They crowded round him, eyeing him with great 
curiosity. One short but busy little fellow pulled him by the 
arm, rising on tiptoe to ask him questions. A knowing, Belf- 
important old gentleman, in a sharp cocked hat, made his way 
through the crowd, to demand of Rip his reasons for carrying 
the gun. 

Poor, puzzled old Rip, who believed that he had been away 
only one night, was dismayed by the excitement over him. He 
began to doubt whether he was himself or another man, and the 
bystanders now looked at each other, nodded, winked, and tapped 
their fingers against their foreheads. There was a whisper about 
securing the gun. and keeping the old fellow from doing mischief. 



THE ADVERB. 51 

At this critical moment, however, a fresh, comely woman 
passed through the crowd to get a peep at the gray-bearded man. 
She had a rosy, chubby child in her arms, whom she spoke to as 
"Rip." The old man, hearing the name, at once told her his 
story. She proved to be his daughter, and took him home to live 
with her. Her house was a snug, well-furnished one, and she had 
a stout, cheery farmer for a husband, whom Rip recollected for 
one of the urchins who used to climb upon his back. 

— Adapted from Washington Irving." 



68. Reproduce the account given above, using your 
own words as far as possible. Then write a similar 
composition, describing the return home of some one 
whom you know, or of a journey you have taken. 



THE ADVERB. 

69. Observe carefully the verbs in the following 
sentences : 

1. Mother returns soon. 

2. Mother meets us here to-morrow. 

3. The hours pass slowly. 

4. Roses are very fragrant. 

5. Night comes too soon. 

When does mother return? What word modifies 
returns by telling when she returns? 

Where will mother meet us? What word modifies 
meets by telling tvhere she will meet us? 

How do the hours pass? What word modifies pass 
by telling how the hours pass? 

What parts of speech are return*, meets, and pass? 



52 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Words like soon, here, and slowly, used to modify 
verbs, are called Adverbs. Adverb means to a verb — 
used with a verb. 

How fragrant are the roses? What word modifies the 
adjective fragrant by telling how fragrant the roses 
are ? 

How soon does night come? What word modi ties the 
adverb soon by telling how soon night comes? 

Words like very and too, used to modify adjectives or 
adverbs, are also called Adverbs. 



An Adverb is a word used to modify the meaning ot a 
verb, an adjective, or an adverb. 



70. Classes of Adverbs. 

Adverbs are classified as, 

1. Adverbs of Time — those answering the questions, 
When? How long? How often? Thus: 

/. Father will come to thee soon. 

2. He ahoays speaks the truth. 

3. Hereafter I shall be prompt. 

4. Come early, not late. 

5. Love is love forevermore. 

2. Adverbs of Place — those answering the questions, 
Where? Whither? Whence? Thus: 



1. Bring the book here. 

Turn backward, <> Time, in your flight 
Do you sec; the birds yonder f 
We shall soon go hence. 

5. They all went ashore. 



THE ADVERB. 53 

3. Adverbs of Manner — (1) those answering the 
questions, How? or, How much? (2) those limiting by 
making affirmation or denial, thus: 

1. Sloicly and sadly we laid him down. 

2. Yes, I will favor you. 

3. No, we shall not come. 
4- The lessons are too long. 
5. He is much better to-day. 
C. Certainly I will go. 

7. Doubtless he will object. 

Obs. L— An adverb used to ask a question in reference to 
manner, time, place, or cause, is called Interrogative; as. 
Brno (when, where, why) shall we go? 

Obs. II. — An adverb used to introduce a clause is called Con- 
junctive; as, 

1. I shall sing again when I return. 

2. The book remains where you left it. 

3. "Work while it is day. 

EXERCISE. 

71. (a) In each of the following sentences, name (1) 
the subject-noun or pronoun; (2) the verb; (3) the 
adjectives; and (4) classify the adverbs and tell what 
each limits: 

1. We have been agreeably disappointed. 

2. Some people are continually changing their minds. 

3. Upward soared the lark. 

4. He labors hard and rests very little. 

5. He seldom comes ashore. 

6. How oppressively warm it is ! 

7. Why do you tarry ? 

c^. '• Swiftly, swiftly, flew the ship, 
Yet she sailed softly, too. 
Sweetly, sweetly, blew the breeze. 
On me alone it blew." 



54 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



(/') Construct sentences illustrating the use of the 
following words: 

Adverbs of Time. 

yesterday often early frequently 

to-day always again sometimes 

to-morrow lately rarely forever 





Adverbs 


( of Place. 




here 


away 


far 


hither 


there 


aside 


forward 


thither 


yonder 


back 


outward 


everywhere 




Adverbs 


of Manner. 




well 


truly 


partly 


somewhat 


softly 


fast 


undoubtedly 


verily 


badly 


faithfully 


gently 


certainly 


so 


very 


easily 


gracefully 


scarcely 


equally 


entirely 


carefully 


sufficiently 


greatly 


perhaps 


indeed 



72. Adverbs Formed From Adjectives. 

1. The waves are calm; the}' move calmly. 

2. Lambs are gentle; treat them gently. 

3. The man is angry: he speaks angrily. 

What is added to the adjectives calm, gentle, and 

angry to make the adverbs calmly, gently, and angrily f 

Many adverbs are thus formed from adjectives by 

suffixing (or adding) ly. 



CAUTIONS. 

73. Adjectives should not be used instead of adverbs to 
limit verbs. 

7. They move calmly (not calm). 
:.'. Treat them gently (not gentle). 
S. He speaks angrily (not angry). 



COMPOSITION. 55 

EXERCISE. 

74. (a) Choose the correct words in the following 
sentences: 

1. (Really, real) honest men can be found. 

2. I feel quite (happily, happy). 

3. (Almost, most) everyone is attending the meeting. 
4- How (rapid, rapidly) the moments fly! 

5. Some pupils learn (easy, easily). 

6. They acted very (nobly, noble). 

7. (Swift, swiftly) speeds the gallant ship. 

(b) Change the following adjectives to adverbs and 
use the adverbs in sentences: 

easy sudden visible frantic smooth 

noble joyous bright happy soft 



COMPOSITION. 

75. Read thoughtfully the following outline: 

THE HYACINTH. 

Have you seen a beautiful hyacinth bloom in winter? Did you 
catch its sweet fragrance? Would you like to grow one? 

Planting. — If so, get a large, sound bulb of the Dutch variety. 
Norma, in September or October. Does it resemble any vegetable? 
Find the ring where roots will grow. What is on the opposite 
side? Plant the hyacinth in a four or five inch flower-pot, using 
rich soil. What is the use of this soil? Will you place the bulb 
near the bottom of the pot or near the top? Why? Pack the 
soil firmly and water freely. 

Growth. — Give the bulb water often enough to keep the soil 
moist. How will that assist the roots? Can they penetrate moist 
soil better than dry? If our hyacinth were outdoors in the ground. 



56 PR I MART GRAMMAR. 

would it be cool for the next few months? Would it be covered'.' 
In what part of the house, then, should it be placed? Can you 
also imitate Mother Nature and cover with two or three inches 
of soil? Yes, wisely. Will you water regularly? 

If the hyacinth thrives out iu the flower-garden, will a touch 
of frost some night harm it in the basement? No. What are 
the roots doing in October and November? In late December 
or January you will observe the soil being pushed up. Now tin- 
leaves thrust out into air, breaking through the covering soil. 

Forcing. — Clear away this soil to the top of the bulb, clean 
the plant and flower-pot. and bring into the sunlight and warmth 
gradually. What color were the leaves? What is essential to 
make leaves green? What changes now occur in shape? In color? 
What season are you now making for the plant after its winter in 
the cool basement or cellar? This is called Forcing. 

Bloom. — Is the head of flower-buds well above the bulb? 
When does it show color? Does the stem grow more rapidly 
then? Have warmth and sunlight hastened blooming? 

Study one of those waxen flower-bells, noting its shape, size, 
and texture. Describe its color. What of the fragrance? How 
are the bells arranged on the stem? Did the leaves grow from 
this stem? Why are flowers made so attractive? 

To prolong its blooming period do you think it should be 
kept cool or heated? In the sunlight or out of it? 

After the flowers have faded take out the bulb ami wash away 
the soil, noticing how the roots have grown. What do you find 
on the side of the old bulb? Do you think if they were planted 
they would increase in size and become as large as the bulb you 
had last September? Yes, but favorable climate is necessary. 

Note: Since you have " forced " the bulb once, it wid not 
produce so tine a bloom again, but you can plant it in the garden 
and get a small cluster of flowers a year hence. 

The moist climate, equable temperature, and low, rich soil of 
Holland produce the tine, large bulbs we need for forcing. 

The teacher will direct pupils to the sad story of Hyaeinthus. 



You may write a composition about each of the 
topics, Planting, Growth, Forcing, Bloom, etc., at its 

appropriate time; also, after blooming — 



COMPOSITION. 57 

1. Describe accurately your treatment of the hyacinth 
— what you did. Illustrate with drawings of the flower- 
pot and sprinkling can. 

2. Describe the development of the bulb — what the 
hyacinth did. Illustrate with a drawing of the bulb at 
first, the plant and bulb when brought out of Avinter 
quarters, and the bulb in bloom. 

You may use the topics planting, growth, forcing, and bloom, 
in each case, as subjects of separate paragraphs. 

3. Write about the elements necessary to plant life: 
Soil, "Water, Air, Light, Heat, their source, etc. 



76. Following the outline below, write what you 
know of adverbs. 

Outline. 

1. Definition — two examples. 

2. Classification — define each class and give examples. 

3. How formed from adjectives — example. 



INFLECTION. 



77. Observe the different forms of the italicized 
words in the following sentences: 



1. He is a man much esteemed among men. 

;.'. He is a fine lad; she is a fine lass. 

3. This apple is sweet; that is sweeter. 

4. He can dance; I saw him. 

5. I see a lark, and I saw it yesterday. 

6. Clara loves and is loved. 



What noun, in the above sentences, changes its form 
to denote more than one? What noim changes its form 
to denote a different sex? What adjective changes its 
form to compare one apple with another? What pro- 
noun in sentence 4 changes its form to show its use as 
the object of a transitive verb? What verb in sentence 
5 changes its form to show past time? What verb in 
sentence 6 changes its form to show that Clara not 
only acts but is acted upon? 

Changes, like the use of men for man; lass for lad; 
sweeter for sweet; Mm for he; saw for see; and is loved 
for loves, are called Inflections. 



Inflection in grammar is a change in the form of a 
word to vary its meaning or use. 

58 



INFLECTION— NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 59 

That form of a word in which inflections (changes) 
are made is called the mot-word, thus: 

man, the root for men. lad, the root for lass. 
see. the root for saw. love, the root for is loved. 

Obs. — Words are inflected to express Person, Number, Gender, 
Case, Voice, Mode, Tense, and Comparison. 



INFLECTION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS — 
DECLENSION. 

78. Person Forms. 

(a) 1. My friend, I gladly greet you. 
2. The autumn days are come. 

What pronoun in the above sentences represents the 
person that is speaking? What noun represents the per- 
son addressed, or spoken to? What noun is used to 
represent things spoken of? 

(p) Words like I, in sentence 1 (a), used to represent 
the speaker, are said to be in the First Person. 

1. I will study. 3. I, John, saw these things. 

2. We shall learn. 4. We boys are ready. 

(c) Words like friend, in sentence 1 (a), used to 
represent persons or things spoken to, are said to be in 
the Second Person. 

1. Will you sing, Ella? 3. Have you no song, robin? 
,'?. Canst thou dance? 4. Hast thou no friends? 

Obs. — The second person singular (thou hast, thou art. etc.) is 
used to-day only in poetry. 



60 PRIM AnY GRAMMAR. 

(d) "Words like days, in sentence x* (a), used to 
represent persons or things spoken of. are said to be 
in the Third Per sun. 

1. February is the birth month of Washington and Lincoln. 

2. February needs no other decoration. 

3. Monticello was the home of Thomas Jefferson. 



(e) Person of nouns is shown not by their form but 
by their use. 

Person of personal pronouns is shown by inflection, 
thus: 

First Person. Second Person. Third Person. 

I thou lie, she, or it 

we you they 

The pronouns of the First Person are / and we; 
myself and ourselves. 

The pronouns of the Second Person are thou and 
ye or you; thyself, yourself, yourselves. 

The pronouns of the Third Person are he, she, it. 
and they; himself herself, itself, and themselves. 

EXERCISE. 

79. (a) Name the nouns and pronouns in the fol- 
lowing stanzas and tell the person of each: 

Yes, we're boys, — always playing with tongue or with pen; 
And 1 sometimes have asked. Shall we ever be men'.' 
Shall we always be youthful, and laughing, and gay, 
Till the last dear companion drops smiling away? 

Then here's to our boyhood, its gold and its gray! 
The stars of its winter, the dews of its Maj ' 
And when we have done with our life-lasting t<>y<. 
Dear Father, take care of thy children, The Boys! 

— From ''The Boys,- Holmes. 



INFLECTION-NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 



61 



{b) Write four sentences, using 1, we, you, and they 
as subjects. Write sentences, using him, her, us, and 
them as objects of transitive verbs. 

80. Number Forms. 



tree 


box 


lady 


fife 


trees 


boxes 


ladies 


fifes 


folio 


cargo 


leaf 


staff 


folios 


cargoes 


leaves 


staffs 



Notice the above list of nouns. Name those that 
denote one. Name those that denote more than one. 
Does the form of each tell whether it denotes one or 
more than one? 

The form of a noun or pronoun by which it dis- 
tinguishes one object from more than one is called 
Number. 

Nouns that denote one are said to be in the Singular 
Number; as, man, woman. 

Nouns that denote more titan one are said to be in 
the Plural Number; as, men, women; boys, girls. 

Nouns are inflected to show number. 

81. Rules for the Formation of the Plurals. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


tree 


trees 


box 


boxes 


folio 


folios 


match 


matches 


rose 


roses 


bush 


bushes 


town 


towns 


glass 


glasses 


house 


houses 


waltz 


waltzes 



What is added to the nouns tree, folio, rose, town, and 
house to form the plural! - ' 



62 PRIMART GRAMMAR. 

1. The plural of nouns is usually formal by adding 
s to the singular. 

With what letters do the nouns box, glass, and walti. 
end? What is added to each of these nouns to form 
the plural? 

2. The plural of nouns ending in s, x, z, ch (as in 
match), and sh, is formed by adding es to the singular. 

Write the plural of each of the following nouns: 



lesson 


dish 


canoe 


topaz 


fence 


anvil 


bush 


zone 


loss 


trench 


watch 


genius 



82. Observe the following nouns and notice how 
the plurals are formed: 



Ingula/r. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


joy 


joys 


candy 


candies 


key 


keys 


lily 


lilies 


tray 


trays 


story 


stories 



What is added to the words joy, key, and tray to form 
the plural ? What change is made in the nouns candy, 
lily, and story? 

3. The plural of nouns ending in y, preceded by a 
vowel (a, e, i, o, or u), is formed by adding s; nouns 
ending in y. preceded by a consonant, change y /o i inal 
add es. 

Write the plurals of the following nouns: 



city 


daisy 


victory 


story 


lady 


ray 


sky 


baby 


toy 


journey 


money 


essay 



IXFLECTI0N-N0UN8 AND PRONOUNS. 



63 



83. Observe the nouns given below and note the 
formation of the plurals: 



Singular. 


Plural. 


beef 


beeves 


calf 


calves 


elf 


elves 


leaf 


leaves 


loaf 


loaves 


half 


halves 


self 


selves 


shelf 


shelves 



Singular. 
thief 
wharf 
sheaf 
wolf 
wife 
life 
knife 



Plural. 
thieves 
wharves 



wolves 



lives 
knives 



Jf. The above twelve nouns, ending in f, form their 
plural by changing f to v and adding es; the three ending 
in fe form their plural by changing f to v and adding 
s; all other nouns thus ending form their plural by 
adding s only. 

Write the plurals of the following nouns: 



life 


grief 


cliff 


fife 


thief 


bluff 


roof 


gulf 


staff 



Obs. — All nouns ending in ff add s only, except staff (meaning 
stick), which changes ff to v and adds es. 



84. Study the following nouns and notice how the 
plurals are formed: 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singula)'. 


Plural. 


folio 


folios 


potato 


potatoes 


bamboo 


bamboos 


calico 


calicoes 


trio 


ti'ios 


cargo 


cargoes 


duo 


duos 


buffalo 


buffaloes 


cameo 


cameos 


veto 


vetoes 


studio 


studios 


negro 


negroes 



64 PRIMARY ORAM. MAR. 

5. Nouns ending in o, preceded by a vowel, form theii 
plural by adding s. 

6. Most nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, 
form their plural by adding es. 

Write the plurals of the following nouns: 



85. 



octavo 

piano 

cargo 




echo 

torpedo 
tomato 




hero 

calico 

halo 


Notice 


the plurals of the following nouns 


Singular. 


Plural. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


man 


men 




louse 


lice 


woman 
child 
foot 
tooth 


women 
children 
feet 
teeth 




goose 

ox 

mouse 


geese 
oxen 
mice 



The above nouns form their plurals very irregularly, 
not by a change of termination, but, with only two 
exceptions, by a change within the word. 

EXERCISE. 

86. (a) Pluralize the nouns in the following sentences 
and then make such other changes as will be necessary: 

1. The goose is a web-footed fowl. 

2. The potato is a tuber. 

3. The ostrich is the largest bird. 

4. The child we met was a dwarf. 

5. I put my money in the bank. 

6. The man on the wharf was playing a fife. 

7. The sword is in its sheath. 

8. The motto was chosen without proviso. 



COMPOSITION. 65 

ip) Name the adjectives and verbs in the following- 
stanzas and tell the person and number of each noun: 

Within his sober realm of leafless trees, 
The russet Year inhaled the dreamy air; 

Like some tanned reaper, in his hour of ease, 
When all the fields are lying brown and bare. 

The gray barns looking from their hazy hills, 
O'er the dun waters widening in the vales, 

Sent down the air a greeting to the mills, 
On the dull thunder of alternate flails. 

— From " The Closing Scene," Read. 



COMPOSITION. 

87. Read carefully this account of: 

HOW LINCOLN STUDIED GRAMMAR. 

. The following characteristic incident in the life of Abraham 
Lincoln shows that in grammar, as in everything else, the maxim, 
" Where there's a will there's a way," holds good. 

It is said that when Lincoln was a young man of twenty-one, 
clerking in a store in New Salem, Illinois, he found to his joy 
that he could speak in public and argue a case as well as anyone 
who passed through the village. 

But he felt, to his keen chagrin, that while his thoughts were 
clear and convincing, his language was imperfect and faulty; 
hence, when he made up his mind to become a public speaker, he 
at once sought the schoolmaster for advice. "If you are going 
before the public, you ought to study grammar," was the wise 
man's sensible answer. 

The only grammar in the neighborhood was six miles away, 
but before night Lincoln had walked the distance to and fro and 
was deep in the mysteries of the borrowed copy of "Kirkham's 
Grammar." Every spare moment for weeks was spent with that 
book. The whole neighborhood became interested in his progress. 



66 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Even the village cooper kept up a fire at night by which 
Lincoln might sit and study grammar. 

It was not long hefore the hook was mastered and Lincoln 
was so delighted that he said to his fellow clerk: "Well, if that's 
what they call a science, I think I'll go at another." 

From such humble beginnings came the training which enabled 
Lincoln to express his thoughts with a clearness, force, and 
simplicity that are seldom equaled. 

— Adapted from Tarbell's "Life of Lincoln." 

Notice the divisions or paragraphs in this composition. 
Give the number of each noun in the third paragraph. 

Lay the book aside and reproduce the incident, using 
your own language as far as possible. 

88. Review person and number; then, following the 
outline below, write what you know of each, in the form 
of a composition. 

Outline. 

1. Person — define it — how many'.' Define each and give 
examples. 

2. Number — define it — how many? Define each and give 
examples. 

3. How the plurals are formed: 

Most nouns — nouns adding es — examples. 
Nouns ending in / or fe and o — examples. 
Nouns ending in y — examples. 



89. Number Forms of Personal Pronouns. 

1. He will play, and they will dance. 

S. You are a good child. You are good children. 

Which pronouns in the foregoing sentences denote 
person? Which represent more than one? Which are 
in the singular number? Which in the plural number? 



INFLECTION-NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 67 

EXERCISE. 

90. Copy the following pronouns and underline 
once those in the plural number, and twice those that 
are sometimes singular and sometimes plural: 



thee 


thou 


he 


her 


she 


they 


your 


you 


ye 


his 


its 


their 


my 


them 


it 


him 


thy 


yours 



Obs. — You, may be singular or plural, as seen in sentence 2. 
page 66. When, however, it is used as the subject of a sentence, 
a plural verb is required; as, 

1. You icere present (not teas). 

2. You are employed (not is). 

91. Rules for the Use of the Personal Pronouns. 

1. The number of the pronoun must be the same as 
that of its antecedent; as, 

1. The ladies took their umbrellas with them. 

2. ' George brought his book and laid it on the table. 

3. The birds sing their best songs. 

4. The rose sheds its sweetest fragrance. 

2. Singular antecedents connected by and usually 
require a plural pronoun; as, 

1. George and Guy have learned their lessons. 

2. Sun and shower bring us their blessings. 

3. John, James, and Joseph took their guns with them. 

3. Singular antecedents connected by or or nor 
require a singular pronoun; as, 

1. Either George or Guy has learned his lesson. 

2. Neither George nor Guy has learned his lesson. 



68 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

If.. Singular pronouns are required after each, every, 
either, neither, not one, anyone, etc. ; as, 



1. Each of the men took his boe. 

2. Every leader has Ilia faults. 

3. Either of the sisters will do her share. 

4. Not one of us does as well as he can. 



EXERCISE. 

92. (a) Fill each of these blanks with personal 
pronouns of correct number: 

1. Which one of the reapers finished work first: 

2. Mary and Maud will bring us book. 

3. John or James will bring us book. 

4- Notice is hereby given to all persons to pay taxes. 

5. Every child should be allowed toys. 

6. It is difficult for men or women to see own faidts. 

7. Not a rabbit nor a hare made appearance. 

(b) Write sentences using the following pronouns 
with antecedents of the same number: 

their his her them 

its it they he 

93. Gender Forms. 

1. Father has a coachman. 

2. Mother keeps a maid-servant. 

3. Place the glasses on the sideboard. 

4. Children love their parents and respect their teachers. 

Of what sex are the objects named by the nouns 
in sentence 1? Of what sex are those named in sen- 
tence 2? Do the nouns in sentence 3 indicate sex? 

Nouns like father and coachman, used to represent 
males, are of the Masculine Gender. 



INFLECTION— NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 69 

Nouns like mother and maid-servant, used to repre- 
sent females, are of the Feminine Gender. 

Nouns like glasses and sideboard, naming objects 
without sex, are of the Neuter Gender. 

Nouns like children, parents, and teachers, naming 
either males or females, are of the Common Gender. 

The sex of the objects named by such nouns is often 
indicated by the context, and they are said to be 
masculine or feminine as the context determines. 

EXERCISE. 

94. Name the nouns in the following sentences and 
give the person, number, and gender of each: 

1. Great talkers are broken pitchers; they hold nothing. 

2. Gertrude has neither father nor mother. 

3. The captain tells his adventures to the children. 

4. Laziness travels slowly; poverty overtakes it. 

5. Ichabod was a suitable figure for such a steed. 
G. "Ah, you are so great, and I am so small, 

I tremble to think of you, World, at all; 
And yet, when I said my prayers to-day, 
A whisper inside me seemed to say: 

'You are more than the Earth, though you are such a dot; 
You can love and think, and the Earth can not!'" 

95. Methods of Distinguishing Gender. 

Nouns distinguish gender in three ways: 
1. By different endings — inflection. 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


master 


mistress 


executor 


executrix- 


heir 


heiress 


widower 


widow 


count 


countess 


sultan 


sultana 


czar 


czarina 


hero 


heroine 


Julius 


Julia 


Paul 


Pauline 



?() 



PRIMAUY GHAMMAll. 



By joining a distinguish 



Masculim . Feminine. 

man-servant nna'd-servant 

he-goat .she-goat 

mern/rm mermaid 



lg word. 

Masculine, 
landlord 
grandfather 
male-child 



/•'< minine. 
landlady 
grandmothei 
ft male-child 



By different words. 



Masculine, 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


man 


woman 


brother 


sister 


nephew 


niece 


lord 


lady 


lad 


lass 


king 

EXERCISE. 


queen 



90. (a) Copy the following nouns and write after 
each its opposite gender: 



actor 


Jew 


hunter 


prince 


lioness 


hostess 


tigress 


negro 


master 



(A) Write the feminine of each of the following nouns 
bv the use of different words: 



son 


male 


husband 


uncle 


bachelor 


boy 


father 


gander 


monk 



(c) Write three sentences having masculine subjects 
and feminine objects; as, 

George assists liis mother. 



(d) Write three sentences having feminine subjects 
and neuter objects; as, 



Sarah loves music. 



INFLECTION— NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 71 

(e) Write three sentences with neuter nouns as 
subjects; as, 

The tables are turned. 



97. Gender Forms of Pronouns. 

(«■) 1. She met him at church. 

2. We met her in Cambridge. 

3. I am glad to see you. 

4. Thou art the man. 

I, thou, he, she, and it are pronouns. 

Which personal pronouns show by their form that 
they represent females? Which show that they represent 
an object neither male nor female? Then name the 
gender of each of the above pronouns. 

(b) The gender of a pronoun must be the same as 
that of its antecedent. Thus, he, his, and him represent 
masculine nouns; she, hers, and her represent feminine 
nouns; it and its, neuter nouns; they, theirs, them, etc., 
common-gender nouns. 

1. George has a book, and Tie will lend it. 

2. May took her friend with her. 

3. Nelson raises his hat when he meets a lady. 

4. The teachers took their lunches with them. 

5. John's father waited for him. 

(c) When the gender of the antecedent is indefinite, 
the masculine pronoun is used; as, 

1. Each child took his top and hoop. 

2. Everyone should study himself. 

3. Has anyone raised Ms hand? 

4. Every pupil should have Ms own book. 



72 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE. 

98. Fill the following blanks with pronouns of the 
correct number and gender: 

1. Stephen died a martyr to faith. 

J. The kitten ate breakfast. 

3. Mary said had finished work. 

4. George and Guy took skates to the pond. 

5. Carlos learned lesson before went to school. 

6*. Some boy or girl has lost or knife. 

7. The boys have lost boat. 

8. Everyone should do best. 

9. Each one of us must paddle own canoe. 

10. The bird carries straws in mouth to build nest. 

11. "The friendly cow all red and white 

love with all heart; 

gives me cream with all might 

To eat with apple tart." 



COMPOSITION. 

99. Study very carefully the folloAving description: 

HOW ROBINSON CRUSOE BUILT A BOAT. 

I felled a large cedar tree. I question whether Solomon ever had 
such a one for the building of his Temple at Jerusalem. At the base 
it was six feet in diameter, and five feet in diameter twenty feet 
above the base, where it lessened for a while, before it parted into 
branches. 

With great labor I felled this tree. I was twenty days hacking 
at it at the bottom. I was fourteen more cutting off its branches 
and wide-spreading head, which I did with axe and hatchet. After 
this it required a month's work to shape it to proportions like a boat, 
that it might sail upright. 

To work out the inside so as to form a complete hull. I worked 



COMPOSITION. 73 

three months longer. Thus by dint of hard labor, without fire, I 
made a very handsome canoe with chisel and mallet. It was big 
enough to cany six and twenty persons, and consequently big 
enough to carry me and my cargo. The boat was really much big- 
ger than any I ever saw that was made of one tree, and I was ex- 
tremely delighted with it. Now, there remained nothing to do but 
to get it into the water. 

The ground where the canoe lay was about twenty feet higher 
than the water, so I reasoned that by digging into the surface of the 
earth so as to form an incline plane, it would be easy for me to get 
the boat down the incline if I could only start it. But after I had 
done all this work I could not even stir the heavy canoe. 

Then I determined to dig a canal and bring the water to the 
canoe, since I could not take the canoe to the water. "Well, I began 
this work, but thought best to make a calculation upon the time it 
would take me to accomplish it. To my dismay, I found that I must 
work ten or twelve years before the canal would be completed. 

This grieved me heartily; and then I saw, though too late, the 
folly of beginning a work before we count the cost, and before we 
judge rightly of our own ability to push it to completion. 

—Daniel Defoe. 



Notice the contents of each paragraph in the above. 
What nouns and pronouns indicate gender? 

Lay the story aside and tell it in writing as you recall 
it. Compare your story with Crusoe's. Did you omit 
anything? Have you placed the thoughts in the right 
order? 

Rewrite your story, if you can improve it in any way. 

100. Review gender; then, following the outline 
below, write briefly what you know of gender. 

Outline. 

1. Definition — how many? Define each and give examples. 

2. Define the ways by which nouns distinguish sex and give 
examples. 



74 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

101. Case Forms. 

(a) 1. We can see them. Can they see us? 

2. I found him. He could not find me. 

3. He put his knife in my desk. 

4. Webster charmed his hearers. 

What nouns or pronouns in the above are subjects of 
sentences? Which ones are objects of verbs? Do we 
and us represent the same persons? To what does we 
change its form to represent the object of a verb? 
Which pronoun denotes possession? Do he and his 
represent the same person? To what does he change 
its form to denote possession? What noun completes 
the meaning of the word in? 

Words like we, they, he, and Webster, used as sub- 
jects of verbs, are said to be in the Nominative Case; 
those like them, us, him, me, desk, and hearers, used as 
objects of verbs, or of prepositions, are said to be in the 
Objective Case; those like his and my, used to denote 
possession, are said to be in the Possessive Case. 

(b) What noun in the following sentence is used with 
the copulative verb is, to form the predicate? What is 
such a noun called? 

Mercury is a metal. 

Nouns or pronouns like metal, used as attributes in 
the predicate, are also in the nominative case; as, 

1. It is I. S. Tennyson was a poet. 

J. We were they. 4. They were singers. 

You have found that nouns and pronouns are inflected 
to show number, gender, and case; and pronouns, to 
show person also. 



INFLECTION'— NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 7o 

102. Declension. 

Inflection of nouns and pronouns is called Declension. 
Nouns are declined to show possession only; the 
objective case requires the same form as the nominative. 
The possessive case of nouns is formed: 

1. By adding the apostrophe and s ('s) to singular 
nouns and to plural nouns not ending in s, thus: 

Guy's hat children's shoes 

men's money man's money 

boy's coat women's work 

2. By adding the apostrophe (') only to plural 
nouns ending in s, thus: 

girls' hats ladies' dresses 

boys' games merchants' convention 

Nouns representing persons and lower animals are 
declined to denote possession. "With other nouns, pos- 
session is usually expressed by means of equivalent words; 

as, 

The top of the tree — not the tree's top. 

The height of the mountain — not the mountain's height. 

The width of the street — not the street's width. 

Obs. — Exceptions are nouns indicating time, such as, the days 
work, the week's time, the month's pay, the year's course, and a few 
others. 

Declension of Nouns. 



Nominative. 


Possessiv, 


Singular — man 


man's 


Plural — men 


men's 


Singular — girl 


girl's 


Plural — girls 


girls- 


Singular — fly 


fly's 


Plural — flies 


flies' 



man 
men 
girl 

girls 

fly 



76 



PR I. VARY (I RAM MAR 
Declension op Pronouns. 



Nominati 


e. Possessive. 


Singular — 


I 


my or mine 


Plural — 


we 


our or ours 


Singular — 


thou 


thy or thine 


Plural- 


you 


your or yours 


Singular — 


he 


his 


Plural — 


they 


their or theirs 


Singular — 


she 


her or hers 


Plural — 


they 


their or theirs 


Singular — 


it 


its 


Phiral — 


they 


their or theirs 
EXERCISE. 



Objective. 

me 

us 

thee 

you 

him 

them 

her 

them 

it 

them 



103. (a) Rewrite the following, using equivalent 
words for each possessive noun: 



The children's story. 
A sister's love. 
Paul Revere's ride. 
The bird's wing. 
Franklin's kite. 
The Lord's mercy. 



The ocean's waves. 
A mother's care. 
Washington's home. 
The ladies' apartment. 
Arnold's treason. 
A child's manner. 



(b) Name the subject and verb of each of the fol- 
lowing sentences; also tell the person, number, gender. 
and case of each noun and pronoun: 



He and I are ready. 
We found him and her. 
I saw that it was she. 
John is a good citizen. 
He can go as well as she. 
Can you hear them sing? 
His dog worried our cat. 



COMPOSITION. 77 

8. Julia can not find her pen. 

9. Who will find it for her? 

10. Come unto me and I will give you rest. 

11. You acted consistently with your profession. 

12. They climb up into my turret 

O'er the arms and back of my chair; 
If I try to escape, they surround me; 
They seem to be everywhere. 

— Longfellow. 



(c) Write the correct form in the following: 

1. Mary and (me, I) were present. 

2. You are smaller than (he, him). 

3. Can you sing as well as (they, them)? 

4. It was (me, I). 

5. I know that it was (she, her). 

6. I was visiting Lizzie and (she, her). 

7. They visited (he, him) not (I, me). 

8. Here are some pearls for (she, her) and (I, me). 

9. Was it not Guy and (her, she) who called? 

10. Do you think it was (they, them)? 

11. Will you escort Susie and (I, me)? 



COMPOSITION. 

104. Eead thoughtfully the following description of 
the turkey's behavior: 

THE MARTIAL TURKEY. 

Perhaps it is not generally known that we get the idea of some 
of our best military maneuvers from the turkey. The sending of 
a skirmish line in advance of an army is one of them. The drum- 
major of our holiday militia companies is copied exactly from the 



78 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

turkey gobbler: he has the same splendid appearance, the same 
proud step, the same warlike aspect. 

The gobbler does not lead his forces in the field, but goes 
behind them, like the colonel of a regiment, so that he can see 
every part of the line and direct its movements. This resemblance 
is one of the most singular things in natural history. I like to 
watch the gobbler maneuvering his forces in a grasshopper field. 
He throws out his company of two dozen turkeys in a crescent- 
shaped skirmish line, the number disposed at equal distances, while 
he walks majestically in the rear. 

They advance rapidly, picking right and left, killing the foe 
and disposing of the dead bodies with the same peck. Nobody has 
yet discovered how many grasshoppers a turkey will hold; but he is 
very much like a boy at a Thanksgiving dinner — he keeps on eating 
as long as the supplies last. 

— From "Being a Boy," by Charles Dudley Warner. 



Make a list of the adjectives and adverbs in the 
above description. Tell the case of each noun and 
pronoun. 

Rewrite this composition, using other words of similar 
meaning for the italicized words. 

What animal is the most interesting to you? Write 
an account of it, telling all you have observed or learned 
about your favorite animal. 

105. Review case; then, following the outline below, 
write in the form of a composition what you know of it. 
Make a paragraph of what you write on each point in 
the subject. 

OUTLLNE. 

1. Definition — how many? Define each and give examples. 
?. Write rules for forming the possessive case and give 
examples of each. 



INFLECTION— ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 79 

INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS— 
COMPARISON. 

106. Comparison of Adjectives. 

1. Guy's peach is sweet. 

,?. George's peach is sweeter than Guy's. 

3. Ned's is the sweetest peach of the three. 

What adjective in sentence 1 expresses quality of the 
peach? In sentence 2, what is added to that adjective to 
express a comparison between Guy's peach and George's? 
In sentence 3, what is added to compare Ned's with 
George's and Guy's? 

Which of these different forms expresses merely the 
quality of sweetness? Which a higher degree of qual- 
ity? Which the highest degree of quality? 

This change of form in adjectives, to express degree 
of quality or quantity, is called Comparison. 

Adjectives are inflected to show comparison. 

107. Degrees of Comparison. 

There are three degrees of comparison: The Posi- 
tive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. 

The Positive degree denotes the mere existence of the 
quality; as, 

sweet grapes bright days cheerful manner 

The Comparative degree denotes a higher or lower 
degree; as, 

sweeter grapes brighter days less cheerful manner 



80 PRIMARY f! RAM MAR. 

The Superlative degree denotes the highest or lowest 
degree; as, 

sweetest grapes brightest days least cheerful manner 



The Comparative degree is used when two things are 
compared; the Superlative when more than two things 
are compared. 



lOS. Comparison by adding - r or er. 

Most adjectives of one syllable (and some of more than 
one) are compared regularly by adding r or er to the 
positive, to form the comparative, and st or est to the 
positive, to form the superlative, thus: 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 
kind kinder kindest 

wise wiser wisest 

able abler ablest 

great greater greatest 



109. Comparison by More and Most. 

Some adjectives, particularly those of more than one 
syllable, are compared by the use of wore or less for 
the comparative, and most or least for the superlative, 
thus: 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlativi . 


fragrant 


more fragrant 


most fragrant 


curious 


less curious 


least curious 


patient 


more patient 


most patient 


diligent 


less diligent 


least diligent 



INFL E G TIO N—A DJEO T I'VE 8 AND AD VERBS. 81 

110. Irregular Comparison. 

Memorize the comparison of the following adjectives, 
compared irregularly, and use six of them in sentences: 



good 


better 


best 


bad[ 
ill S 


worse 


worst 


little 


less 


least 


fore 


former 


( foremost 
I first 


near 


nearer 


j nearest 
I next 


much ) 
many ) 
late 


more 


most 


j later 
( latter 


( latest 
I last 


old 


older 


j oldest 
( eldest 



EXERCISE. 

111. («) Compare the following adjectives: 

low 
fast 
large 

(b) Compare the following and use in sentences the 
comparatives of four and the superlatives of six: 



small 


light 


poor 


merry 


hot 


tall 


fair 


silly 


true 


rich 


weak 


bright 



cheerful 


marshy 


mellow 


tender 


fearless 


precise 


cunning 


grateful 


able 


honest 


polite 


narrow 



(c) Classify the adjectives in the following sentences: 
tell what each limits and give its degree: 

1. The apples on our table are sweet. 

2. Many poisonous plants grow wild. 



82 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



3. This is the worst road of all. 

4. George is taller than I. 

5. The sun shines on the placid lake. 

6. My old friend treads his native hills again. 

7. The cold wind drives the fallen leaves. 

8. Good friends are most valuable. 

9. Fine feathers make a fine bird. 
10. Fair words want giving hands. 

112. Adjectives that are Inflected to show 

Number. 

(a) This and that are the only adjectives which are 
inflected to show number, thus: 



1. This boy studies. 

2. These boys play. 



That girl paints. 
Those girls spin. 



(5) Use this and that with singular nouns; these and 
those with plural nouns, thus: 

1. This (not these) sort of fruit suits me. 

2. We do not wish that (not these) kind of shoes. 

113. Comparison of Adverbs. 



A few adverbs, like adjectives, are inflected for 
comjjarison, thus: 



late 

early 

harshly 

brightly 



later 
earlier 

more harshly 
less brightly 



latest 
earliest 
most harshly 
least brightly 



EXERCISE. 

114. (a) Use three of the above comparatives in 
sentences and three of the superlatives. Tell what each 
limits. 



INFLECTION— ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 83 

(b) Commit to memory the comparison of the fol- 
lowing adverbs, compared irregularly, and use each of 
them in a sentence of your own construction: 



much 


more 


little 


less 


well 


better 


ill 


worse 



115. "Words used as Adjectives or Adverbs. 

Many words are used sometimes as adjectives, some- 
times as adverbs; as, 

1. He is the best boy. 3. I ate breakfast early. 

2. He behaves best. 4. I ate an early breakfast. 

EXERCISE. 

116. (a) Use the proper form in each sentence below : 

1. We prefer (this, these) kind of hats. 

2. "Which is (more, most) useful, gold or iron? 

3. Of all oceans the Pacific is the (larger, largest). 

4. Of all gems the diamond is the (more, most) costly. 

5. Who is (youngest, younger), Caro, Ruth, or Esther? 

(b) "Which of the italicized words in the following 
sentences are adjectives? "Which adverbs? What does 
each limit? 

1. You should learn fast. 6. The road was long. 

2. You are fast learners. 7. We were long on the way. 

3. I am very well. S. Are you an early riser? 

4. Does he study better? 9. Then you can start early. 

5. He is a better student. 10. The day was dreary. 



84 PRIM All Y GRAMMAR 

COMPOSITION. 

117. In the following nature stud}', remember that 
the scientist observes facts and seeks to determine their 
meaning. He states his observations accurately and his 
conclusions modestly. 

STORM AND HILL. 

In connection with the study of geography, let us observe the 
work of raindrops. Have they anything to do with the shape of 
this earth? -They make the grass grow and the trees flourish, 
true enough, but what can change the "everlasting hills"? Let 
us visit a hill or bluff and observe the effect of rain. 

The Hillside. — Is the hill grassy on all sides? Where has 
rain affected it most? Do you find the side even? What has cut 
down those gullies? In the wrestle of rain and hillside, which 
was the stronger during the storm? Have pebbles and stones ever 
been torn away? Do you think the hill has ever been higher or 
steeper? Where do you imagine the top was ten years ago? 
What side has the rain dealt most savagely with? Will the 
direction and force of the wind affect the amount of soil washed 
down? Is the crest outline smooth or jagged? Are there any tiny 
elevations down the slope? What causes them? 

The Valley. — Where the little torrents reached level ground, 
what was the disposition of material? Where were the largest 
stones dropped? The next larger? The small pebbles? What is 
there a little beyond? Can you find a hollow which held the 
water awhile? Here is the finest sediment — the silt dissolved 
from the soil of the hill above. Why are there no pebbles 
here? 

The Stream. — Can you trace the growth of any rill into a 
brook? Where is the silt? Is the water clear? Do you think 
there may be silt in water almost clear? Is rain pure water? Is 
a large river usually clear? What will it carry out into the ocean? 
Where does the silt, finally deposited, find its home? 

Many cities along such large rivers as the Missouri or Mi>si>- 
sippi, use river water. If a ulass of this water is left standing 
for a time, a thin layer of mud or silt is seen at the bottom. 



COMPOSITION. 85 

General Results. — What is the effect of rain and snow 
upon the hills? At what season are these effects most prominent? 
Why? Compare a rainy year with a dry one. A wet region of 
country with a dry one. Study a divide or watershed in your 
geography. What kind of a house-roof resembles one? What is 
the effect of the watershed nearest you? All these wonderful 
and interesting effects of rain and snow, freezing and thawing, 
etc., are called erosion. 

"Every valley shall be filled, every hill brought low." 

Write a description of, 

1. Erosion at the Hillside. (Draw or paint a sketch to 
illustrate.) 

2. Brooks and Rivers as Freight Carriers. (Sketch a tumbler 
in which coarse and fine pebbles, sand, and mud have been mixed 
and allowed to' settle in water.) 

3. The Battle of Rain and Hill. 

Be sure to describe what you saw, exactly. If you 
quote the statements of others, so indicate. If you state 
conclusions or thoughts of your own, state them as such, 
not as observed facts. 

118. Eeview comparison; then, following the out- 
line below, write from memory what you know of it. 
Be careful to paragraph each division of the subject. 

Outline. 

1. Definition — how many degrees? Define each and give 
examples. 

2. Comparatives — how are they formed? Give examples of 
each method. 

3. Superlatives — how are they formed? Give examples of 
each method. 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



INFLECTION OF THE VERB. 

119. Mode Forms. 

1. Charles walks. 

2. Does Charles walk? 

3. Charles may walk. 

4. Charles must walk. 

5. If Charles walk I will walk. 

6. Charles, walk here. 

Each verb of the above sentences asserts the same 
kind of action. Which verb asserts the action as actual, 
or as a fact? Which inquires if a thing actually exists? 
Which asserts a thing, not as actual, but as possible? 
Which asserts a thing as conditional (that may or may not 
occur)? Which as a command? 

That form of a verb which shows the manner in which 
it asserts action, being, or state is called Mode. 

The word mode means manner. 

120. The Indicative Mode. 

Verbs like walks and does walk, in sentences 1 and 2, 
Sec. 119, used to assert a thing as actual, are in the 
Indicative Mode; as, 

1. John studies music. 

2. Bid George read a poem? 

3. We have seen the comet. 

4. They have gone home. 

5. The birds have flown. 

Write sentences using the indicative mode of the 
verbs sing, play, work, and do. 



INFLECTION— THE VERB. 87 

121. The Potential Mode. 

Verbs like may walk, must walk, in sentences 3 and 4, 
Sec. 119, used to assert a thing as possible or permissible, 
as necessary or obligatory, are in the Potential Mode; as, 

1. Julia can learn music. 

2. James may study history. 

3. Susie should study art. 

4. Joseph might learn a trade. 

5. You must work or be worthless. 

The potential mode is formed by the use of the fol- 
lowing mode-verbs : May, can, must, might, could, 
would, or should. 

Write sentences using the potential mode of the 
verbs see, come, go, and trust. 

122. The Subjunctive Mode. 

(a) Verbs like walk, in sentence 5, Sec. 119, used 
to express that which may or may not occur, a supposi- 
tion contrary to fact, or a wish, are in the Subjunctive 
Mode; as, 

1. Unless he reform, he can not be trusted. 

2 . If I were you, I would attend school. 

3. I would that father were here. 

(b) This mode is usually introduced by if, though, 
unless, or other similar words. When, however, verbs 
thus introduced are used to express what is a fact or 
assumed as a fact, they are in the Indicative Mode; as, 

1. If it snows and bloics, why do you go? 

2. Though he ^cas old, he was not infirm. 

3. If he wishes to visit me, he must come soon. 



88 PUT MARY CRAM MAR. 

123. The Imperative Mode. 

Verbs like walk, in sentence G, Sec. 11!), used to 
assert a thing as a command or an entreaty, are in the 
Imperative Mode; as, 

1. Study your lessons. 

2. Bring me your books. 

3. Come to the desk. 

4-. Do listen to the music. 

5. See the shadows on the wall. 

Write sentences using the verbs give, hear, >/i>, and 
thinh in the imperative mode. 

124. Tense Forms. 

1. I write letters to-day. 

2. I have written the letters to-day. 

3. I wrote the letters yesterday. 

Jf. I had written the letters yesterday. 
5. I will write the letters to-morrow. 
G. I will have written the letters to-morrow. 

All the verbs in the above sentences assert the same 
action and of the same subject, /. Do they each express 
time? Which expresses an action as in the present? 
"Which expresses an action as begun in the past and 
completed in the present? Which expresses an acticn 
as past? Which expresses an action as begun and 
completed (perfected) in the past? Which expresses an 
action as yet to come? Which expresses an action as 
begun and completed (perfected) in the future? 

Do these verbs change form to express different 
time ? 



INFLECTION— THE VERB. 89 

That form or variation of a verb by which it expresses 
the time of the action or being is called Tense. The 
word tense means time. 

How many different forms of the verb do you notice 
in these six sentences? 

There are, then, six tenses: 

present past future 

present-perfect past-perfect future-perfect 



125. The Present Tense expresses action or being in 
present time; as, 

1. Gambling is a crime. 

2. The times are prosperous. 

3. Our times may improve. 

4. Lay down your pens. 



126. The Present-Perfect Tense expresses action or 
being completed at the present time; as, 

1. We have learned our lessons. 

2. He has been successful. 

3. They may have heard the news. 

4. Rave your friends arrived? 

5. lias she found the quotation? 

The present-perfect tense is formed by the use of the 
tense-verbs have or has before the past participle of 
the principal verb. 

Write sentences using the present-perfect tense of the 
verbs write, sing, stand, and he. 

Obs. — That variation of the verb used in the perfect tenses 
after have, has, or had is called the Past Participle. 



90 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

127. The Past Tense expresses action or being as 
wholly past; as, 

1. We came on Tuesday. 

2. Did you come by rail? 

3. The nights were cold and starry. 

4. I stood on the bridge at midnight. 

128. The Past- Perfect Tense expresses action or 
being as completed in the past; as, 

1. My weary guest had lain down. 

2. Had the sun risen? 

3. The wounded soldiers had fought bravely. 

4. We had stood in line for hours. 

The past-perfect tense is formed by the use of the 
tense-verb had before the past participle. 

Write sentences using the past-perfect tense of the 
verbs play, go, see, and he. 

129. The Future Tense expresses action or being yet 
to come; as, 

1. He will dine with us to-morrow. 

2. I shall learn grammar. 

3. Surely it will rain to-day. 

4. Shall we see you to-morrow? 

The future tense is formed by placing before the 
principal verb the tense-verbs shall for the first person 
and will for the second and third persons. 

130. The Future-Perfect Tense expresses action or 
being as completed in the future; as, 

1. Soon we shall have finished our book. 

2. In a few days he will have completed his college course. 

3. To-morrow she will have reached her tenth year. 

4. They will have added ten dollars. 



INFLECTION—THE VERB. 91 

The future-perfect tense is formed by the use of the 
tense-verbs shall have or will have before the past 
participle. 

Write sentences using the future-perfect tense of the 
verbs learn, do, go, and read. 

For the participles, see page 114. 



131. Tense Forms in all the Modes. 

The Indicative mode has all the six tenses. 

The Potential mode has four tenses — the Present, 
Present-Perfect, the Past, and Past-Perfect. 

The Imperative mode has only one tense — the 
Present. 

The Subjunctive mode has two tenses, the Present 
and the Past. In form it differs from the indicative only 
as follows : 

1. It uses be in the present tense instead of am, is, 
and are; and were in the past tense instead of was. 

2. It uses have instead of has, and drops s or es 
from other verbs in the third person singular, present 
tense. 

Obs. — The pupil should notice how rarely any special form 
for the subjunctive occurs in modern English. 



132. A study of the following table of mode and 
tense forms shows but few inflections for mode and tense, 
the only changes in the principal verb being in the 
past indicative and subjunctive, and in the perfect tense, 
indicative and potential: 



92 


PRIMARY 


GRAMMAR. 






TABULAE 


STATEMENT 
AND 


OF THE 
TENSE. 


FORMS 


OF 


MODE 




/ Present — 


have 


love 
) 




write 




Present-perfect - 


- has 


,- loved 




written 




Past — 


hast 


) 

loved 




wrote 


Indicative / 
Mode. 


Past-perfect — 


had 
hadst 


t loved 




written 




Future — 


shall 
will 


I love 




write 




\ Future-perfect- 


shall 
will 


• have loved 


written 




1 
Present — 


may 

can 
must 


r love 




write 




Present-perfect - 


may 

- can 


f have loved 


written 






must 


) 






Potential ) 
Mode. \ 




might 


>. love 

s 






Past — 


could 
would 




write 






should 










might 


- have 1 








Past-perfect — 


could 
would 


>ved 


written 




\ 


should 








/ 


if 


) 








Present — 


though 


V love 




write 


Subjunctive 




unless 


) 






Mode. 


' Past— 


if 
though 


- loved 




wrote 




\ 


unless 






Imperatix E 
Mode. 


j Present — 




love 




write 



COMPOSITION. 93 

COMPOSITION. 
133. Commit the following poem to memory: 

A FANCY. 

At evening when I go to bed 
I see the stars shine overhead; 
They are the little daisies white 
That dot the meadow of the Night. 

And often while I'm dreaming so, 
Across the sky the Moon will go; 
It is a lady, sweet and fair, 
Who comes to gather daisies there. 

For, when at morning I arise, 
There's not a star left in the skies; 
She's picked them all and dropped them down 
Into the meadows of the town. 
— From "little-Folk lyrics," by Frank Dempster Sherman. 

A poem is a composition written in verse. 

A verse is a single line of poetry. 

A stanza is a division of a poem containing two or 
more verses. 

A rhyme is a correspondence of sound at the end of 
verses. 

How many stanzas in this poem? How many verses 
in each stanza? Mention the rhymes in each stanza. 
With what kind of a letter does each of the verses begin? 
Tell the mode and the tense of each verb. 

Copy this little poem, observing carefully the capitals 
and marks of punctuation. 

Briefly write the story of the poem in the form of a 
prose composition. Place each thought in its proper 
order. You may call your story "■ Helen's Fancies." 



94 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

134. Eeview mode and tense; then, following the 
outline below, write what you know of them in the 
form of a composition. 

Outline. 

1. Definition of Mode — how many modes? Define each and 
give examples. 

2. Definition of Tense — how many tenses? Define each and 
give examples. 



135. Auxiliary Verbs. 

Verbs like do, may, and can, which have been used 
in the preceding study of the Inflection of Verbs to 
help form the various modes and tenses, are called 
Auxiliary Verbs. This name is given because auxiliary 
means helping. 

Only two tenses of these verbs are required in their 
use as auxiliaries with the exception of be, all of whose 
forms are employed. 

The auxiliaries with the tense forms used are: 

Present — am do have shall will may can must 
Past — was did had should would might could 

Note: The auxiliary be has various forms as follows: I am, 
thou art, he is, they are, I was, thou wast, they were, if thou 
wert, I have been, being ready, to be ready. 

Be, have, do, and will are also principal verbs, and 
may take other auxiliaries before them; as, 

1. You may have my skates. 

2. We shall be late. 

"3. They could have done well. 
4. He may will us his estate. 



INFLECTION— THE VERB. 95 

136. Rules for the Proper Use of the Aux- 
iliaries. 

1. To express permission or possibility, use may: 

1. The teacher says I may (not can) go. 

2. May (not can) I go home? 

3. The stars may shine to-night. 

4. It may be true. 

5. The book may be lost. 

Construct three sentences using may correctly. 



2. To express ability or power, use can: 

1. I can write (not may). 

2. You can solve the problem. 

3. I think you can learn grammar. 

Construct three sentences using can correctly. 



3. Might and could, the past tenses of may 
can, follow the rules for may and can: 

1. The teacher said I might go home. 

2. Might he not go out? 

3. I could not walk. 

4. Could he not stand? 

Construct three sentences using might correctly. 



Jf.. To express necessity or obligation, use must: 

1. "We must wait. 

2. Must we wait for the train? 

3. We must submit to the laws. 

Construct three sentences using must correctly. 



96 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

o. To express simple futurity, use shall in the first 
person; will in the second and third persons: 

1. I shall start to-morrow. 

2. You will start to-morrow. 

3. We shall move next week. 

4. Will they move next week? 

Construct three similar sentences. Explain your use 
of shall and will. 

6. To express purpose or determination and futurity, 
use will in the first person; to express compulsion with, 
futurity, use shall in the second and third: 

1. I will pay the bill to-morrow. 

2. You shall pay the bill. 

3. My son shall pay his bills. 

4. We will pay those bills. 

Construct three similar sentences. Explain your use 
of shall and will. 

7. Should and would, the past tenses of shall and 
will, follow the rules for the tises of shall and will: 

1. We thought we should go. 

2. We determined we would go. 

3. I feared he would leave. 

4. He demanded that we should resign. 

Construct three similar sentences. Explain your use 
of should and would. 

8. Use do as an auxiliary to make the emphatic 
form of a verb; also in interrogative and negative 

sentences: 

1. I do enjoy your company. 

2. He did work with might. 



INFLECTION— THE VERB. 97 

3. Does he study hard? 

4. They do not study. 

5. Did you hear the music? 

Construct three similar sentences. Explain your use 
of do and did. 

9. Use be to make the progressive form of a verb: 

1. I am writing. 4. I have been writing. 

2. I was writing. 5. I had been writing. 

3. I shall be writing. 6. I shall have been writing. 

137. Regular and Irregular Verbs. 



1. 


I call to-day. 


4- I win favors. 


2. 


I called yesterday. 


5. I won a favor. 


3. 


I have called to-day. 


6. I have won a favor. 



What is annexed to the verb call to form the past 
tense? What is annexed to form the past participle? 
Does the verb win form its past tense by adding ed to 
the present? 

A verb whose past tense and past participle are 
formed by adding d or ed to the present tense is called a 
Regular Verb. 

A verb that does not form its past tense by adding 
d or ed to the present tense is called an Irregular Verb. 

138. Principal Parts of the Verb. 

The principal parts of a verb are the Present Indic- 
ative, Past Indicative, and Past Participle, thus: 



Present Indicative. 


Past Indicative. 


Past Participle. 


live 
hold 


lived 
held 


lived 
held 


give 
write 


gave 
wrote 


given 
written 



98 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE. 

139. (a) Form the past tense and past participle of 
each of the following verbs: 



invite 


say 


give 


teach 


carry 


collect 


destroy 


see 


sit 


sing 


talk 


discover 


recite 


blow 


fall 


do 


raise 


rain 


watch 


win 


go 


rise 


sail 


copy 


shine 



(6) Give the principal parts of the following verbs 
and tell which are regular and which are irregular: 



take 


dawn 


grow 


drive 


reply 


reform 


break 


ride 


laugh 


begin 


freeze 


fly 


love 


lay 


eat 


look 


steal 


prosper 


lie 


learn 



140. Irregular Verbs. 

The following list includes nearly all the irregular 
verbs in the language. Those marked E are also used 
as regular verbs. Those in italics have unlike forms for 
the past tense and the perfect participle. Most errors 
occur in the use of those in italics. 

1. Never use have (has or had) with the past tense. 

2. Never use the perfect participle for the past tense. 

3. Hang, to execute by hanging, is regular. 
Jf-. Lighted is preferred to lit. 



Obs. — Some verbs with two forms for the past tense and the 
perfect participle have different meanings for the different forms, 
as worked and wrought. 



INFLECTION— THE VERB. 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Present 


Past 


Perfect 


Present 


Past 


Perfect 


Tense. 


Tense. 


Participle. 


Tense. 


Tense. 


Participle. 


Abide 


abode 


abode 


Clothe 


clad, R 


clad, R 


Arise 


arose 


arisen 


Come 


came 


come 


Awake 


awoke, R 


awaked 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Be or am was 


been 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Bear 


bore 


j born 
( borne 


Crow 


crew, R 


crowed 






Cut 


cut 


cut 


Beat 


beat 


beaten 


Bare 


durst, R 


dared 


Begin 


began 


begun 


Deal 


dealt, R 


dealt, R 


Beheld 


behold 


behold 


Dig 


dug, R 


dug, R 


Bend 


bent, R 


bent, R 


Dive 


dove, R 


dived 


Bereave 


bereft, R 


bereft, R 


Do 


did 


done 


Beseech 


besought 


besought 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Bet 


bet, R 


bet, R 


Dream 


dreamt, 


R dreamt, I 


Bid 


(bid > 
\ bade f 


bidden 


Dress 


drest, R 


drest, R 


Bind 


bound 


bound 


Drink 


drank 


j drank 

\ drunk 

driven 


Bite 


bit 


bitten 


Drive 


drove 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Dwell 


dwelt, R 


dwelt, R 


Blend 


blent, R 


blent, R 


Eat 


ate 


eaten 


Bless 


blest, R 


blest, R 


Fall 


fell 


fallen 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Break 


broke 


broken 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Breed 


bred 


bred 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Bring 


brought 


brought 


Find 


found 


found 


Build 


built, R 


built, R 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Burn 
Burst 


burnt, R 
burst 


burnt, R 
burst 


Fling 
Fly 


flung 
flew 


flung 
flown 


Buy 


bought 


bought 


Forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


Cast 
Catch 


cast 
caught, K 


cast 
caught, R 


Forget 


forgot 


j forgotten 
( forgot 


Chide 


chid 


chidden 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Choose 


chose 


chosen 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Cleave 


j clove 
} cleft 


cloven 
cleft 


Get 


got 


(got 
| gotten 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


Gild 


gilt, R 


gilt, R 



100 



PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



Present 
Tense. 

Gird 
Give 
Go 

Grave 
Grind 
Grow 
Hang- 
Have 
Hear 
Heave 
Hew 
Hide 
Hit 
Hold 
Hurt 
Keep 
Kneel 
Knit 
Know 
Lade 
Lay 
Lead 
Lean 
Leap 
Leave 
Lend 
Let 
Lie 
Light 
Lose 
Make 
Mean 
Meet 



Pay 
Pen 



Past 
Tense. 

girt, R 

gave 

went 

graved 

ground 

grew 

hung 

had 

heard 

hove, R 

hewed 

hid 

hit 

held 

hurt 

kept 

knelt, R 

knit, R 

knew 

laded 

laid 

led 

leant, R 

leapt, R 

left 

lent 

let 

lay 

lit, R 

lost 

made 

meant 

met 

mowed 

past, R 

paid 

pent. R 



Perfect Present 
Participle. Tense. 



girt, R 

given 

gone 

graven, R 

ground 

grown 

hung 

had 

heard 

hoven, R 

hewn, R 

hidden 

hit 

held 

hurt 

kept 

knelt, R 

knit, R 

known 

laden, R 

laid 

led 

leant, R 

leapt, R 

left 

lent 

let 

lain 

lit, R 

lost 

made 

meant 

met 

mown, R 

past, R 

paid 

pent, R 



Past 
Tense. 



Prove 


proved 


Put 


put 


Quit 


quit, R 


Rap 


rapt, R 


Read 


read 


Rend 


rend 


Rid 


rid 


Ride 


rode 


Ring 


< rang ) 
I rung J 


Rise 


rose 


Rive 


rived 


Run 


ran 


Saw 


sawed 


Say 


said 


See 


saw 


Seek 


sought 


Seethe 


sod, R 


Sell 


sold 


Send 


sent 


Set 


set 


Shake 


shook 


Shape 


shaped 


Shave 


shaved 


Shear 


sheared 


Shed 


shed 


Shine 


shone, I 


Shoe 


shod 


Shoot 


shot 


Show 


showed 


Shred 


shred 


Shrink 


j shrunk 
I shrank 


Shut 


shut 


Sing 


j sang ) 
} sung f 


Sink 


( sunk | 




| sank \ 



Perfect 

Part triple. 

proven, R- 

put 

quit. R 
rapt, R 
read 
rent 
rid 

ridden 

rung 

risen 
riven. R 



sawn. R 

said 

seen 

sought 

sodden. R 

sold 

sent 

set 

shaken 

shapen, R 

shaven. R 

shorn, R 

shed 

shone, R 

shod 

shot 

shown, R 

shred 



shrunk 

shut 

sung 

sunk 



INFLECTION— TEE VERB. 



101 



Present 
Tense. 

Sit 

Slay 

Sleep 

Slide 

Sling 

Slink 

Slit 

Smell 

Smite 

Sow 

Speak 

Speed 
Spell 
Spend 
Spill 

Spin 
Spit 

Split 
Spread 

Spring 

Stand 

Stave 

Stay 

Steal 

Stick 

Sting 

Stride 
Strike 



Past Perfect 

Tense. Participle 



sat 

slew 

slept 

slid 

slung 
slunk 
slit 

smelt, R 
smote 
sowed 
spoke ) 
spake j 
sped 
spelt, R 
spent 
spilt, R 
spun ) 
span \ 
spit ) 
spat J 
split 
spread 
sprang ) 
sprung j 
stood 
stove, R 
staid, R 
stole 
stuck 
stung 
strode 
strid 

struck 



sat 

slain 

slept 
j slidden 
(slid 

slung 

slunk 

slit 

smelt, R 

smitten 

sown, R 

spoken 

sped 
spelt, R 
spent 
spilt, R 

spun 
spit 

split 
spread 

sprung 

stood 

stove, R 

staid, R 

stolen 

stuck 

stung 

stridden 

strid 
j struck 
( stricken 



Present Past Perfect 

Tense. Tense. Participle. 



strung 
striven 
strown, R 
sworn 
sweat, R 
swept 
swollen, R 

swum 

swung 

taken 

taught 

torn 

told 

thought 

thriven, R 

thrown 

thrust 

trodden 

woke, R 

waxen, R 

worn 

woven 

wed, R 

wept 

wet, R 

whet, R 

won 

wound 

wrought, E 

wiung 

written 



String 


Strang 


Strive 


strove 


Strow 


strowed 


Sicear 


swore 


Sweat 


sweat, R 


Sweep 


swept 


Swell 


swelled 


Swim 


( swam | 
} swum ) 


Swing 


swung 


Take 


took 


Teach 


taught 


Tear 


j tore ) 
I tare J 


Tell 


told 


Think 


thought 


Thrive 


throve, R 


Throw 


threw 


Thrust 


thrust 


Tread 


trod 


Wake 


woke, R 


Wax 


waxed 


Wear 


wore 


Weave 


wove 


Wed 


wed, R 


Weep 


wept 


Wet 


wet, R 


Whet 


whet, R 


Win 


won 


Wind 


wound, R 


Work 


wrought, R 


Wring 


wrung 


Write 


wrote 



Obs.— Compounds of these verbs usually have their principal 
parts irregularly formed as above, thus: 

undo undid undone 



102 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

COMPOSITION. 
141. The study of a poem: 

WHERE GO THE BOATS? 

Dark brown is the river, 

Golden is the sand. 
It flows along forever, 

With trees on either hand. 

Green leaves a-floating, 

Castles of the foam, 
Boats of mine a-boating — 

Where will all come home? 

On goes the river 

And out past the mill. 
Away down the valley, 

Away down the hill. 

Away down the river, 

A hundred miles or more, 
Other little children 

Shall bring my boats ashore. 
— From "Child's Garden of Verses" by Robert Louis Stevenson. 

Have you ever sailed boats? Can you readily imagine 
this river? Does the poet require many words to suggest 
a beautiful idea to us? Is each line a complete picture? 
Describe the river and its course. Tell the story of the 
boats. 

A valuable study may be made of any poem which has 
a story to tell; as, 

"The Mountain and the Squirrel," by Emerson. 
"Little Boy Blue," by Eugene Field. 
"Little Voices," by George Howland. 

The school readers afford similar material well adapted for study, 
and the works of our best poets are easily accessible. 



INFLECTION— THE VERB. 103 

142. Eeview the auxiliaries and write what you 
know of them in the form of a composition. Follow the 
outline below and paragraph each natural division of 
the subject. 

Outline. 

1. Define the auxiliary verb and give the list of those verbs. 

2. Give the use of may and can; of might and could. 

3. Give the use of shall and will; of should and 



143. Voice Forms. 

1. John bought a book. 

2. The book was bought by John. 

3. The farmer gathers the harvest. 

4. The harvest is gathered by the farmer. 

Name the subject of each of the above sentences. 
Name the verb. Is it transitive or intransitive? Name 
the object of the verbs in senteuces 1 and 3. Which 
verbs represent their subjects as being acted upon? Do 
the verbs bought and gathers change their form to repre- 
sent the subject as acted upon? 

The form of a transitive verb which shows whether 
its subject acts or is being acted upon is called Voice. 

144. The Active and the Passive Voice. 

(a) Transitive verbs, like bought and gathers, used to 
represent the subject as acting, are said to be in the 
Active Voice; as, 

1. Bees make honey. 

2. Birds build nests. 

3. Men wrote the letters. 



104 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

{b) Transitive verbs, like was bought and is gathered, 
used to represent the subject as acted upon, are said to 
be in the Passive Voice; as, 

1. Honey is made by bees. 

2. Nests are built by birds. 

3. The letters were written by men. 

(c) The passive voice of a verb in any tense is formed 
by adding its past participle to the verb be in that 
tense; as, 

1. I avi taught. 

2. I have been taught. 

3. They will have been taught. 

4. We should be taught. 



EXERCISE. 

145. Kewrite the following sentences, changing the 
active voice to the passive and the passive to the active: 

1. We expect good news. 

2. The attorney examined our claims. 

3. Children welcome the springtime. 

J,. The bird was shot by a thoughtless boy. 

5. The arch will be decorated by an artist. 

6. I seized the opportunity. 

7. The lightning shattered the oak. 

8. The sled was bought by Ned. 

'J. The steam engine was invented by Watt. 

10. Electricity moves the cars. 

11. One bad example spoils many good precepts. 

12. Have you heard the news? 

13. Were the stanzas written by you? 
14- We saw a brilliant meteor. 

15. The sun's eclipse was seen by many. 



INFLECTION— THE VERB. 105 

146. Person and Number Forms. 

I am ready. You are ready. He is ready. 

I study. You study. He studies. 

I have books. You and I have books. He has books. 

In which of the above sentences is the verb be used? 
Which form of this verb is used with a subject of the 
first person? Of the second person? Of the third? 
Notice the change in the form of the verb be. 

Which verbs in the above nine sentences are used 
with a singular subject? Which with a plural subject? 
Notice the changes in the forms of these verbs. 

You have seen that the verb be takes different forms 
— am, is, are, etc. — to agree with its subject in person 
and number; also that other verbs change form to agree 
with the person and number of their subject, in the 
third person singular only, when s or es is added to the 
verb, and have is changed to has. 

That form of a verb which shows its agreement in 
person with the subject is called Person. 

That form of a verb which shows its agreement in 
number with the subject is called Number. 

Rule: A verb must agree with its subject in person 
and number. 

147. Agreement of Verb and Subject. 

(a) Two or more singular subjects connected by and, 
conveying a plural meaning, require a plural verb; con- 
veying a singular meaning, a singular verb; as, 

1. Julia and Jane learn easily. 

2. My friend and benefactor has come. 



106 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

(b) Two or more singular subjects connected by or or 
nor, or modified by each, every, either, neither, many a, 
or no, require a singular verb; as, 

1. Mary or Martha was present. 

2. Neither John nor James was present. 

3. Every man, woman, and child is saved. 

4. Each man and woman has a friend. 

5. Many a man has been defrauded. 

(c) Some nouns are singular in form but plural in 
meaning; some are plural in form but singular in 
meaning. In such cases the meaning determines the 
form of the verb required; as, 

1. The sheep are in the pasture. 

2. The deer is a graceful animal. 

3. The news is pleasant. 

4. A large class were selected. 

5. The class is large. 

6. A great number were chosen. 

7. The number wounded was one hundred. 

8. "The Idylls of the King" is a charming poem. 

EXERCISE. 

148. (a) Select from the following sentences the 
correct form of the verb and give reasons for its use: 

1. (Was or were) you present yesterday? 

2. Neither of the horses (is, are) here. 

3. John and James (is, are) going to the city. 

4. Every one of the boys (was, were) busy. 

5. Each of the pupils (love, loves) to get prizes. 

6. Not one of the sheep (was, were) out of the field. 

7. Every hill and valley (are, is) covered with grass. 

8. The jury (has, have) found the prisoner guilty. 

9. The jury (agree, agrees) in their verdict. 



INFLECTION— TEE VERB. 107 

10. Both you and your sister (was, were) present. 

11. Neither John nor James (have, has) hooks. 

12. Yonder (go, goes) my brother and sister. 

13. The perfume of the lilies (fill, fills) the house. 

(p) Bead the following sentences, changing the person 
or number of each italicized word, and making such 
other changes as will be necessary: 

1. Every man has his opportunity. 

2. He has a knife in his pocket. 

3. These balls are too hard. 

4. The blacksmith hammers hard on his anvil. 

5. He comes here often. 

6. Are you going to the concert? 

7. Is he going to-morrow? 

8. Are there moose among the mountains? 

9. These are the best pears in the basket. 

10. He knows not what to-morrow will bring. 

11. The girls assist their mother. 

12. This is the best essay that has been written. 

(c) In the following sentences give the mode and tense 

of each verb and tell which verbs are principal and 
which auxiliary: 

1. The weather is cool. 

2. Your dog behaves badly. 

3. We may have good times. 

4. We did enjoy his visit. 

5. Do you love music? 

6. He was reading. 

7. The moon has risen. 

8. I will not go. 

9. He shall not be hurt. 

10. I wish that he were here. 

11. Look before you leap. 

12. Must I write? 

13. Could he sing? 

14. He might help. 



108 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

15. The bells are ringing. 

16. The sun will have set. 

17. We found that he had gone. 

18. Will you meet us? 

19. Shall we see you? 

20. You should have seen the meteor. 

21. Do the stars fall? 

22. Can we help you? 

23. Can you see steam? 

(d) Read the following sentences twice, changing the 
verbs first to the past tense, then to the future: 

1. The stars shine. 

2. The larks sing. 

3. Dead leaves fall. 

4. The lusty billows roar. 

5. The buds burst. 

6. They go to church. 

7. Stars are shining. 

S. The vivid lightning flashes. 

9. I alone escape. 

10. We may go. 

11. I am busy all day. 

12. The rosy morn advances. 

(e) Head the following sentences, changing the pres- 
ent to the present-perfect, the past to the past-perfect, 
the future to the future-perfect tenses: 

1. George comes early. 

2. The boys came late. 

3. Webster's orations are admired. 

4. Bunyan wrote "The Pilgrim's Progress." 

5. The pitcher was broken. 
G. The pupils recite well. 

7. General Grant won many battles. 

S. Homer will read the poem. 

9. He will visit you to-morrow. 

10. Grant was the leader. 



INFLECTION— THE VERB. 109 

(/) Read the following sentences, using first the 
emphatic and then the negative form: 

1. We laughed merrily. 

2. Henry writes well. 

3. They contend for right. 

4. I answered you. 

5. The deer runs. 

6. The soldiers fought bravely. 

7. The patient suffers intensely. 

8. Mary reads. 

9. The crowd cheered heartily. 
10. The frightened shepherds fled. 

(g) Eead the following sentences, using the progressive 
form, and give the mode and tense of each verb: 

1. The stars disappear. 

2. The snow fell. 

3. He set the lamp on the stand. 

4. They will read. 

5. The rain falls. 

6. Heat radiates. 

7. The pen lies on the desk. 

8. They had studied. 

9. The tempest will rage. 

10. The leaves have fallen to the ground. 

11. And the raven still sits, still sits. 

(h) Read the following sentences six times, using the 
verbs in all the tenses in the indicative mode: 

1. I am a student. 

2. This frock is worn. 

3. Is this lot ours? 

4. He is late. 

5. This slate is given to him. 

6. Guy enjoys his position. 

7. Your opinions are also mine. 



110 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

8. Autumn brings us many fruits. 

9. Friends, I come not here to talk. 
10. My son, you do right. 

(i) Head the following sentences four times, using all 
the tenses of the potential mode: 



1. 


The night is dark. 


6. 


She paints portraits. 


2. 


The days are fair. 


7. 


We win prizes. 


3. 


He cuts glass. 


8. 


They wear jewels. 


4- 


Children blow bubbles. 


9. 


The boys are coasting. 


5. 


He learns history. 


10. 


The girls are studying. 



(j) Write fourteen sentences — six with verbs in the 
indicative mode, four with verbs in the potential mode, 
two with verbs in the subjunctive mode, and two with 
verbs in the imperative mode. 

(k) Kewrite the following sentences, selecting from 
the parentheses the proper word to use: 

1. (Can or may) I be excused? 

2. I (shall or will) do my best. 

3. He will not (lay or lie) down. 

4. I (shall or will) have (went or gone). 

5. We (will or shall) be gone a month. 

6. His cane is (broke or broken). 

7. Let him (set or sit) there. 

8. Our task is not yet (began or begun). 

9. Papa says I (can or may) go. 

10. He (run or ran) very fast. 

11. We (would or should) be happy if you (should or would) 

visit us. 

12. (Shall or will) you help us to-morrow? 

13. (Set or sit) with me on the sofa. (Sit or set) out a chair 

for him. 

14. You (done or did) what you should not have (did or done). 

15. (Will or shall) I bring you the papers to-morrow? 



INFLECTION. 



Ill 



SUMMARY OF INFLECTION. 



149. The preceding study of Inflection may be sum- 
marized as follows: 



Number- 



Nouns 

Are Inflected 

to Express 



Case — 



Number — 



Pronouns 

Are Inflected 

to Express 



Are Inflected 
to Express \ 



Adjectives ( 

and Adverbs J 

Are Inflected J 

to Express \ 



Case — 



Voice- 



Mode— 



Tense — 



Person and 
Number- 



the form of a noun by which it 

distinguishes one from more 

than one. 
the form of a noun by which 

sex is indicated, 
the form of a noun which shows 

its relation to other words in 

the sentence. 

the form of a pronoun which 

shows its relation to the 

speaker, 
the form of a pronoun by which 

it distinguishes one from 

more than one. 
the form of a pronoun by which 

sex is indicated, 
the form of a pronoun which 

shows its relation to other 

words in the sentence. 

the form of a transitive verb 
which shows whether the 
subject acts or is acted upon. 

the form of a verb which shows 
the manner in which the 
action, being, or state is 
asserted. 

the form of a verb which defines 
the time of the action, being, 
or state asserted. 

the form of the verb which shows 
its agreement with the subject. 



Comparison— -the form by which adjectives 
express different degrees of 
quality or intensity. 



112 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

COMPOSITION. 

150. Read carefully the following incident in the 
life of a school-teacher: 

HEROISM. 

A little country schoolhouse stood on a beautiful prairie some 
distance from a small village in South Dakota. One bleak wintry 
day the teacher noticed the shadows deepening. It was early in the 
afternoon. With a quick glance she read the cloud signal of an 
approaching storm. She decided to dismiss school at once, so that 
all might reach home in safety. 

Gathering the youngest children about her, she started for the 
village; but in a few minutes the dreaded blizzard was upon them. 
So cold and swift came the driving snow that the strongest men 
would fear to be overtaken by such a storm. 

Great drifts heaped before them, blocking their way home. 
The teacher gathered the little ones about her, wrapped them in 
her garments, and sheltered them with her body, thus giving 
such protection as she could. They could only wait and hope 
for help. 

Some hours later a rescuing party found them almost concealed 
by the drifts. The children, through the loving self-sacrifice of the 
teacher, were unharmed, but the heroic woman who had suffered 
to protect them was so badly frozen that she could never walk 
again. 

The State voted her an annuity for the rest of her life. Do you 
wonder that the people of that town honor such a brave, unselfish 
woman? Men and women everywhere are made better by such 
deeds of heroism. 

Copy the above description, using words of like mean- 
ing instead of all italicized words. 

Mention the nouns and the adjectives. Tell the voice 
of each verb in the composition. 

Without reference to the book, rewrite the story. 
Compare what you have written with the original. Which 



VERBALS. 113 

is the better description of the scene? Did you put eacli 
point of the story in the right place? 

Perhaps you would like to write a story of some deed 
you may admire. The following subjects may recall a 
familiar incident: 

How a Fireman Saved a Child. 
How One Boy Defended Another. 
Courage at a "Wreck. 

151. Review voice; then write in the form of a 
composition what you know of it. Follow the outline 
below and be careful in paragraphing your composition. 

Outline. 

1. Definition — how many? Define each and give examples. 

2. How is the passive voice formed? 



VERBALS. 

152. Name the words denoting action in the follow- 
ing sentences: 

1. Guy writes easily. 

2. The boy writing is Guy. 

3. Words written can not be recalled. 

4. To write is a pleasure. 

What verb in sentence 1 denotes action? What words 
in the other sentences are formed from the same verb? 
Do writing and written denote action? Do they assert 
that anyone writes, or do they assume (take for granted) 
that someone writes? Does to write assert an action, or 
does it merely express it? 



114 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Words like writing, written, and to ivrite, which 
express an action, being, or state, without asserting it, 
are called Verbals. 



A Verbal is a word which is derived from a verb, and 
which expresses action without asserting it. 



Verbals have the meaning of the verbs from which 
they are derived, but are used as nouns or as modifiers. 
They are classified as participles and infinitives, and may 
be formed from nearly every verb in the language, thus: 



Verbs. 


Verbals. 




love 


loving loved 


to love 


sing 

speak 

hope 


singing sung 
speaking spoken 
hoping hoped 


to sing 
to speak 
to hope 


5. Participles 


— Present and Past. 



153. 



(a) Verbals ending in ing are called Present Parti- 
ciples, because they represent an act as present and in 
progress; as, 

1. We saw her painting. 

2. The steamer now leaving sails to London. 

3. Deceiving a neighbor is base. 

(b) Verbals ending in d, ed, en, or t, are called Past 
Participles, because they represent an act as past and 
completed; as, 

1. The bird, frightened by the clogs, flew away. 

2. We saw the soldiers wounded in honorable battle. 

3. A stitch taken in time saves nine. 

4. See the flags rent in battle! 



VERBALS. 115 

EXERCISE. 

154. (a) Form the present and past participles of 
each of the following verbs: 



tell 


drink 


live 


play 


run 


feel 


eat 


strive 


help 


read 


rest 


talk 


sing 


learn 


go 


lie 


lay- 


fly 


break 


ring 



(b) Mention the verbs and classify the participles in 
the following sentences: 

1. Time misspent is time lost. 

2. "Words once spoken can not be recalled. 

3. Being trusted makes us honorable. 

4. They complained of having been treated badly. 

5. The soldier, severely wounded, can not live. 

6. Some joys, once departed, never return. 

7. "And he, neglected and oppressed, 

Wished to be with them and at rest." 

8. "Something accomplished, something done 

Has earned a night's repose." 



155. Modifiers and Attributes of Participles. 

The participle, because of its verbal signification, 
may take, 

1. An adverbial modifier: 

1. The brooks go babbling by. 

2. Lessons learned easily are soon forgotten. 

3. Having written fast, he is ready to post. 

If. Having been timely warned, we escaped danger. 
5. Riding rapidly, he reached the station in time. 



116 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

2. An objective modifier (object): 

1. Having finished his work, he went home. 

2. We saw the army fighting the enemy. 

3. Having been sawing wood, he is weary. 

4. Having finished reading the book, she took a drive 

5. Watering the flowers, the gardener broke a beautiful 

rosebush. 



3. An attribute (adjective or noun): 

1. Having been worthy, he was chosen. 

2. Being a foreigner, he was slighted. 

3. Having become a scholar, he was ready for life. 

4. Being blind, the gentleman was led by his child. 

5. Seeming pure, the lily was selected as the emblem. 



Obs. — The participle combined with its modifier or attribute, 
is called a Participial Phrase. The basis of the participial phrase, 
or its most important part, is the participle alone or the participle 
combined with its attribute. 

EXERCISE. 

156. (a) In the foregoing sentences, mention the 
present and the past participles; also the modifiers and 
attributes they take. 

(b) Write three sentences containing a participle (1) 
taking an attribute, (2) modified by an adverb, (3) modi- 
fied by an object. 

(c) Turn to a prose lesson in your reader or geog- 
raphy and from a paragraph select (1) the present 
participles, (2) the past participles. Name any modifiers 
or attributes any of them may have. 



VERBALS. Ill 

157. Uses of the Participle< 

The participle may be a verbal noun or a verbal 
adjective. Thus it may be used as, 

1. The subject of a sentence: 

1. Being good is being happy. 

2. Writing carefully makes an exact man. 

3. Skating on ice is a fascinating sport. 

4. Claiming justice is every man's right. 



2. An attribute in the predicate: 

1. Rest is not quitting the busy career. 

2. Doing good is being good. 

3. He seemed overjoyed with the good news. 
4- Heroism is daring to do right. 



3. The object of a transitive verb or of a preposi- 
tion : 

1. Boys enjoy playing. 

2. Girls love skating on ice. 

3. We gather facts by studying history. 
4- Sportsmen are fond of hunting deer. 

4. The basis of a phrase used either as a noun or an 

adjective: 

1. Saving time is lengthening life. 

2. Bitter words once spoken can not be recalled. 

3. He is fond of reading poetry. 

5. A qualifying adjective: 

1. Hear the rumbling wheels! 

2. She has a cultivated voice. 

3. Do you hear the babbling brook? 

4. Notice the rippling water! 



118 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE. 

158. («) In the foregoing sentences, mention the 
participles and participial phrases. Give the use of each. 



(b) Write sentences, using a participle (1) as the 
subject of a sentence, (2) as the attribute in the predi- 
cate, (3) as the object of a verb, (4) as the basis of an 
adjective phrase, and (5) as a mere adjective. 



159. Infinitives— Simple and Compound. 

Verbals commonly introduced by to are called Infin- 
itives. According to form they may be classified as 
Simple and Compound. 

(a) The Simple Infinitive consists of a verb preceded 

by to; as, 

1. To think is to reflect. 

2. Ned loves to read. 

3. I shall expect to see you. 

(b) The Compound Infinitive consists of the word to 
followed by the participle combined with be, have, or 
have been; as, 

1. To have tried a hard problem is praiseworthy. 

2. He hopes to have been promoted. 

3. They seemed to be contented. 

(c) Infinitives have two tenses— the present and present- 
perfect; as, 

to love to have loved 



VERBALS. 119 

id) To, the sign of the infinitive, is usually omitted 
after the verbs lid, dare, let, make, feel, see, hear, and 
some others; as, 

1. I saw them start. 

2. We dare not speak. 

3. I feel the soft breeze blow. 

4. He bade us come. 

5. They let us play. 

6. She made the bird fly. 

EXERCISE. 

160. (a) Form the present and present-perfect infini- 
tive of each of the following verbs: 



slide 


choose 


draw 


think 


see 


sink 


fear 


work 


make 


drive 


smite 


act 


blow 


swear 


call 



(b) Mention the infinitives in the following sentences 
and the verbs from which they are formed: 

1. We resolve to study diligently. 

2. They expect to start to-morrow. 

3. We are commanded to love our enemies. 

4. Boys delight to coast on the hillside. 

5. To sing is a delightful pastime. 

6. They have gone to visit friends. 

7. The man appears to have seen better days. 

8. Be swift to hear: be slow to speak. 

9. Teach me to feel another's woe, 

To hide the fault I see. 



(c) Construct six sentences in which the to of the 
infinitive is properly omitted. 



120 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

161. Modifiers and Attributes of Iiifinitives. 

The infinitive, because of its verbal signification, 
may take, 

1. An adverbial modifier: 

1. To live nobly is a duty. 

2. I expect to study diligently . 

3. He wishes to see you soon. 

4. To advance quickly is difficult. 

5. To do justly is to do nobly. 



2. An objective modifier (object): 

1. To love our enemies is a duty. 

2. They came to study geography. 

3. Can you hope to count the stars? 

4. To enter college is my wish. 

5. We desire to learn history. 

6. They attempted to retreat. 



3. An assumed attribute (adjective or substantive): 

1. To be contented is often difficult. 

2. Our hope is to become scholars. 

3. To be successful requires skill. 

4- The man seems to have been prosperous. 

5. They appear to have been thrifty. 

6. To be cheerful is sometimes impossible. 

Obs.— The infinitive, either with or without modifier or 
attribute, is called an Infinitive Phrase. The basis of the infini- 
tive phrase is the infinitive alone or the infinitive combined with 
its attribute. 

Substantive is a term applied to any word, phrase, or clause 
used as a noun. 



VERBALS. 121 



EXERCISE. 



162. (a) In the foregoing sentences, mention the 
infinitives; also the modifiers and attributes Avhich they 
take. 

(5) Write three sentences containing an infinitive 
(1) taking an attribute, (2) modified by an adverb, 
(.3) by an object. 

163. Uses of the Infinitive. 

The infinitive or the infinitive with its attribute may 
be used, 

1. As a noun, either as subject, object, or attribute: 

1. To see the sun is pleasant. 

2. To be truthful should be our constant aim. 

3. My desire is to see you to-morrow. 

4- To retreat was difficult; to advance was impossible. 
5. We love to see the sun's eclipse. 

2. As an adjective: 

1. He has my permission to go. 

2. Have we a right to be free? 

3. There is time to work and time to play. 

4. He has the power to concentrate his thoughts. 

5. Time to come is called future. 

3. As an adverb (denoting purpose or manner): 

1. We work to earn money. 

2. I am not afraid to speak the truth. 

3. I am glad to be free. 

4. Men travel to learn. 

5. We eat to live. 

6. It was too late to return. 



122 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE. 

164. (a) In the foregoing sentences, mention the 
infinitives and the use of each. 

(b) Write sentences containing infinitives used as 
nouns, (1) as subject, (2) as attribute, (3) as object of 
a verb. 

(c) Write two sentences containing an infinitive used 
(1) as an adjective, (2) as an adverb. 

CAUTIONS. 

1. Avoid placing a modifier between to and the root-word of 
the infinitive; as, 

1. People soon ceased to wonder greatly (not to greatly 

wonder). 

2. We should study always to please (not to always 

please). 

3. He desires soon to become president (not to soon 

become, etc.). 

4. To be always cheerful is a virtue (not to always 

be, etc.). 

2. Never use the present-perfect infinitive unless it refers to 
a time prior to that expressed by the principal verb; as, 

1. I intended to go (not to have gone). 

2. We expected to sail {not to have sailed) sooner. 

3. I hoped to be (not to have been) ready to go. 

3. Never use and instead of to before an infinitive; as, 

1. Come to see us (not and see us). 

2. I will try to come (not and come). 



COMPOSITION. 123 

COMPOSITION. 

165. Eead the following carefully. Perhaps you 
will care to read the author's " Sharp Eyes and Other 
Papers": 

THE HOUND. 

The hound is a most interesting dog. How solemn and long- 
visaged lie is — how peaceful and well-disposed! He is the Quaker 
among dogs. All the viciousness and currishness seem to have 
been weeded out of him; he seldom quarrels, or fights, or plays, 
like other dogs. Two strange hounds, meeting for the first time, 
behave as civilly toward each other as two men. * * * 

The hound is a great puzzle to the farm dog; the latter, attracted 
by his baying, comes barking and snarling up through the fields 
bent on picking a quarrel. He intercepts the hound, snubs, and 
insults and annoys him in every way possible, but the hound heeds 
him not. If the dog attacks him he gets away as best he can, 
and goes on with the trail. The cur bristles and barks and struts 
about for awhile, then goes back to the house, evidently thinking 
the hound a lunatic, which he is for the time being — a monomaniac, 
the slave and victim of one idea. I saw the master of a hound 
one day arrest him in full course to give one of the hunters time 
to get a certain runaway fox. The dog cried and struggled to free 
himself, and would listen neither to threats nor caresses. Knowing 
he must be hungry, I offered him a lunch, but he would not touch 
it. * * * He was under a spell; he was bereft of all 
thought or desire but the one passion to pursue that trail. 

— From " Pepaeton," by John Burroughs. 

Why does the author speak of the hound as a 
Quaker? What is a cur? What, then, is currishness? 
How does haying differ from barking? What is the 
meaning of monomaniac? Do you think a great man 
may become so wrapped up in his pursuit of knowledge, 
or discovery, or invention, as not to heed the world 
about him? This is called the power of continued 
attention. You may well imitate it. 



124 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Study this description of the hound till you have 
the author's thoughts and their order well in mind. 
Notice all verbals. As what part of speech is each 
one used? 

Write in a similar way of some animal with which you 
are familiar. If you prefer you may use one of the 
following subjects: 

The Pug Dog. The Parrot. 

The Bear. The Pony. 

The Canary. The White Rabbit. 



166. Review the verbals; then write what you know 
of them. Follow the outline below. 

Outline. 

1. Define and classify verbals and give examples of 

each class. 
S. Mention the uses of the participles. 
3. Mention the uses of the infinitives. 



PAETS OF SPEECH. 



PREPOSITIONS— RELATION WORDS. 

167. In the following sentences observe the blanks 
and study carefully the words italicized: 

1. The pleasures home are numerous. 

2. They went Italy. 

3. We found a place of rest. 

4. The work was done in haste. 

5. Her cloak is trimmed with fur. 

6. The heat of the sun is intense. 

7. I gathered shells along the beach. 

8. Scenes in Nature should be lessons to us. 

Do examples 1 and 2 make good sense? Is there any 
word to show that home is meant to modify pleasures, 
or that it relates to pleasures in any way? Is there any 
relation expressed between Italy and went ? "What words 
can be used in the blanks to show a relation between 
home and pleasures ? between Italy and went ? 

What phrase in sentence 3 modifies place? What 
word connects rest with place? "What other words in 
the above sentences connect and show relation? 

"Words like of, in, with, along, aud to, used to connect 
a phrase and show the relation of its object (the noun 
or pronoun or verbal completing its meaning), are called 
Prepositions. 



126 



PRIMA RT G RA MM A R . 



A Preposition is the connective word of a phrase used 
to show the relation of its ohject to the word which the 
phrase modifies. 

The object of a preposition usually follows it and is 
said to be in the objective case. 

LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL PREPOSITIONS. 

168. The following are the prepositions most fre- 
quently used: 



above 


between 


into 


across 


beyond 


on 


after 


below 


of 


against 


down 


over 


at 


during 


to 


before 


for 


toward 


behind 


from 


up 


beneath 


in 


with 



EXERCISE. 

169. (a) Fill these blanks with appropriate preposi- 
tions selected from the above list, and tell the number, 
gender, and case of each object: 

1. The boy ran the meadows. 

2. The birds flew the fields. 

3. Our friends sailed the Hudson. 

4. We shall get home night. 

5. The books were bought me, but 

given him. 

6. He returned soon midnight. 

7. The story was told simplicity. 



(b) Write sentences using each preposition in the 
foregoing list to connect a phrase, and tell what each 
phrase modifies. 



PHRASES. 127 

PHRASES. 

170. Notice the groups of words italicized in the 
following sentences: 

1. The letter written yesterday was mailed. 

2. Leaves have their time to fall. 

3. He speaks and writes icith rapidity. 

Groups of words like written yesterday, to fall, and 
with rapidity are called Phrases. 

A Phrase is a group of "words containing neither subject 
nor predicate and used as a part of speech. 

Classification of Pheases. 

171. Phrases Classified According to Form. 

According to form, phrases are classified as Participial, 
Infinitive, and Prepositional. 

172. Participial Phrases. 

1. Being polite is being kind to all. 

2. I enjoy being busy. 

3. Being weary, I fell asleep. 

Which phrase in the above sentences is used as a noun 
— the subject of a sentence? Which phrase is used as a 
noun — the object of a verb? Which is used as an 
adjective, to modify the pronoun If What part of 
speech is the first word of each of these phrases? 

Groups of words like being polite, being busy, and 
being weary, introduced by a participle and used as a 
single part of speech, are Participial Phrases. 

A Participial Phrase is a phrase introduced by a parti- 
ciple. 



128 1' III MARY GRAMMAR. 

173. Infinitive Phrases. 

1. To learn is a pleasure. 

2. We have a desire to learn. 

3. We are eager to learn. 

Which phrase is used as a noun — the subject of a 
sentence? Which is used as an adjective to modify 
the noun desire? Which as an adverb to modify the 
adjective eager? 

Verbals like to learn, used as a single part of Bpeech, 
are Infinitive Phrases. 

An Infinitive Phrase is a phrase Introduced l>y t<>, fol- 
lowed hy a verb. 

174. Prepositional Phrases. 

1. Fishes live in the water. 

..'. The history of America is instructive. 

3. Is the house on the top of ei frill? 

J t . He speaks wisely for a child. 

5. She writes with a pencil. 

G. Stand by the fountain. 

7. We hurried through the forest. 

8. The letter was addressed to me. 

What group of words in sentence 1 is used as an 
adverb to modify the verb livef 

Groups of words like in the water, the first word of 
which is a preposition, are Prepositional Pit rases. 



A Prepositional Phrase is a phrase Introduced l>y a 
preposition. 

Tell what each of the phrases in the above sentences 
modifies, and notice that the last word of each phrase 
is a noun or a pronoun. 



CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASES. 129 

175. Phrases Classified According- to Use. 

Phrases, according to use, are further classified as 
Substantive, Adjective, and Adverbial. 

176. Substantive Phrases. 

A Substantive Phrase is one that fills the office of a 
noun. 

It may be used, 

1. As the subject of a sentence: 

1. To love is natural. 

2. Being busy should be a pleasure. 

3. To sing songs is a pleasant diversion 
J/.. To learn requires hard study. 

5. To please you is our desire. 

2. As an attribute in the predicate: 

1. Our desire is to improve. 

2. To rob is to plunder. 

3. He seems to move. 

4. To hesitate is to lose opportunities. 

5. His hope is to succeed. 

3. As the object of a transitive verb: 

1. She dislikes to study. 

2. Boys like to hunt rabbits. 

3. The girls learn to sing. 

4. Do you like to read? 

5. I will try to please you. 

EXERCISE. 

177. (a) Classify the substantive phrases in the fore- 
going sentences and tell the use of each. 



130 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

(b) Construct sentences, one of each kind, illustrated 
by the foregoing examples. Classify and tell the use of 
each phrase. 

178. Adjective Phrases. 

An Adjective Phrase is one that fills the office of an 
adjective. 

It may be used, 

1. As a modifier of a noun or pronoun: 

1. The study of plants is pleasant. 

2. A desire to please is commendable. 

3. Potatoes bitten by the frost soon decay. 

4. Columbus is the capital of Ohio. 

5. Wealth obtained dishonestly soon disappears. 

6. The Temple of Solomon was destroyed. 

2. As an attribute in the predicate: 

1. The child is in need (needy). 

2. She appears to be industrious (industrious). 

3. The gates are of pearl. 

4. He was without friends. 

5. Truth lies deeply buried. 

EXERCISE. 

179. (a) Mention the adjective phrases in the fore- 
going sentences and tell what each one modifies. 

(b) Construct sentences, one of each kind,' illustrated 
by the foregoing examples. Tell the use of each 
phrase. 



CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASES. 131 

180. Adverbial Phrases. 

An Adverbial Phrase is one that fills the office of an 
adverb. 

It may be used, 

1. To limit a verb: 

1. The birds sing in the summer. 

2. I came to hear you sing. 

3. The hills are covered with snow. 

4. The wagons rumble along the street. 

5. I can not go without you. 

6. The earth turns on its axis. 

7. His trusty sword lay by his side. 

2. To limit an adjective: 

1. The mountains are rich in minerals. 

2. They are ready to go. 

3. The ground is white with snow. 

4. He is able to pay his debts. 

5. She is free from care. 

S. To limit an adverb: 

1. We live hazily in California. 

2. They are too young to work. 

3. He provided sufficiently for our needs. 

4. He is too small to enlist. 

5. She sings well for a child. 

6. He is old enough to walk. 

EXERCISE. 

181. (a) Mention the adverbial phrases in the fore- 
going sentences and tell what each one modifies. 

(&) Construct sentences, one of each kind, illustrated 
in the foregoing examples. Tell the use of each phrase. 



132 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

COMPOSITION. 

182. Study carefully the following beautiful descrip- 
tion. Notice all the phrases it contains and what each 
one modifies. Then reproduce it in language of your 
own as far as possible: 

A SNOWSTORM. 

There is snow in the cold gray sky of the morning, and, through 
the partly frosted window panes, I love to watch the beginning of 
the storm. A few feathery flakes are scattered widely through the 
air, and hover downward with uncertain flight, now almost alighting 
upon the earth, now whirled aloft again. These are not the big 
flakes, heavy with moisture, which melt as they touch the ground. 
It is to be, in good earnest, a wintry storm. By nightfall, or at least 
before the sun sheds another glimmering smile upon us, the street 
and our little garden will be heaped with mountain snowdrifts. 
As yet, indeed, there is barely a rime like hoarfrost on the brown 
surface of the street, but gradually great changes will be wrought. 
These little snow particles, which the storm spirit flings by handfuls 
through the air, will bury the great earth under their accumulated 
mass. 

— Nathaniel Hawthorne. 

Having read thoughtfully the above extract, try to 
write a similar description of "An April Rain" or "A 
Thunder-Storm in Summer." 

183. Review phrases; then write in composition 
form what you know of them. Follow the outline be- 
low. Carefully paragraph your composition. 

Outltne. 

1. General definition — give examples. 

2. Classification according to form — define each class and give 
examples. 

3. Classification according to use — define each class and give 
examples. 



PROPOSITIONS AND CLAUSES. 133 

PROPOSITIONS AND CLAUSES. 

184. Propositions. 

Bead the following sentences and determine the use 
of the word groups that are italicized: 

1. Men who are wise will be honored. 

2. The farm that I bought is fertile. 

3. We think that he is truthful. 

4. Snow will fall when winter comes. 

What group of words in sentence 1 would, if stand- 
ing alone, express a complete thought? Has it a subject 
and predicate? Mention the similar groups in sentences 
2, 3, and 4. 

Groups of words like 

Men will be honored We think 

The farm is fertile Snow will fall 

containing a subject and a predicate, which, standing 
alone, would express complete thought, are called Propo- 
sitions. 

A Proposition is a group of words having a subject 
and a predicate and expressing a complete thought when 
standing alone. 

185. Clauses. 

What group of words in sentence 1, Sec. 184, modi- 
fies the noun men? What group in sentence 2 modifies 
farm? Since these groups modify nouns, they are used 
as what part of speech? What group in sentence 3 is 
used like a noun, as the object of think? What group 
in sentence 4 is used as an adverb, by telling when 
snow will fall? What words connect each of these 
groups with the words which they modify? 



134 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Groups of words like 

who are wise that he is truthful 

that I bought when winter comes 

containing a subject and a predicate, and used as a 
part of speech, are called Clauses. 

A Clause is a group of -words having a subject and a 
predicate, and used as a part of speech. 

EXERCISE. 

18.6. Distinguish the propositions and the clauses 
in the following sentences: 

1. He who runs may read. 

2. She stoops that she may conquer. 

3. The air was clear and crisp when we were out wheeling. 

4. The curious pebble has a history if we could but read it. 



187. Classification of Clauses. 

According to their use (or office), clauses may be 
classified as Substantive, Adjective, and Adverbial. 

188. Substantive Clauses. 

A Substantive Clause is one used as a noun. 

It may be, 

1. The subject of a sentence: 

1. That a cold roam is coming is the report. 

2. Why he left is a mystery. 

3. What he said is true. 

4. Who wrote the letters is uncertain. 

5. What the child needs is exercise. 



PROPOSITIONS AND GLAUSES. 135 

2. The attribute in the predicate: 

1. The report is that a cold wave is coming. 

2. The mystery is why he left. 

3. My hope was that you would succeed. 

4. Life is what we make it. 

5. The question is where shall we go. 

3. The object of a transitive verb: 

1. We know that the earth is round. 

2. We trust that God will remember the world. 

3. Tell us how you came. 

4. She told me where she had been. 

5. He asks if the ship has sailed. 

6. They know whom they will meet. 

EXERCISE. 

189. (a) Mention the substantive clauses in the fore- 
going sentences. Tell which are used as subjects, which 
as attributes in the predicate, and which as objects of 
verbs. 

(b) Construct sentences — two using clauses as subjects, 
two as attributes, and two as objects. 



190. Adjective Clauses. 

An Adjective Clause is one used as an adjective. 

It may modify a noun or a pronoun either in the 
subject or in the predicate: 

1. Men who are whole need no physician. 

2. She is a child who never saw a flower. 

3. The air that we breathe should be pure. 

4. He may teach many things which I wish to know. 

5. He who governs himself is a hero. 



136 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE. 

191. (a) Mention the adjective clauses in the fore- 
going sentences and tell what each one modifies. 

(b) Construct two sentences, each containing an 
adjective clause. 

192. Adverbial Clauses. 

An Adverbial Clause Is one used as an adverb. 

It may modify, 

1. A verb: 

1. Will you wait until I come ? 

2. I learned this poem when I was a child. 

3. While he slept the enemy came. 

4. You will find your pen where you left it. 

2. An adjective: 

1. He is better than he was. 

2. We are older than they arc. 

3. The sun is brighter than the moon is. 

4. Summer days are longer than are winter days. 

3. An adverb: 

1. He works harder than I can work. 

2. She learns faster than you do (learn). 

3. He studies less than I study. 

4. The birds flew higher than I thought. 

Kule: Adjective and adverbial clauses which do not 
closely follow or restrict the words they modify should 
he set off by commas. 



THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 137 

EXERCISE. 

193. (a) Mention the adverbial clauses in the forego- 
ing sentences and tell what each one modifies. 

(6) Construct sentences— two containing an adverbial 
clause modifying a verb, two modifying an adjective, 
and two an adverb. 



THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

194. In the following sentences observe the italicized 
words and learn their uses: 

1. Men who think well usually do well. 

2. I have the bird which you lost. 

3. Nature never betrays the heart that loves her. 

"Which of the above clauses modifies men? Which 
modifies bird? Which modifies heart? 

What word in the first clause represents (stands for) 
the noun men? What word in the second clause repre- 
sents bird? What word represents heart? 

What word introduces the first clause and connects 
it with men? What word introduces the second clause 
and connects it with bird? What introduces and con- 
nects the third clause with heart? 

The words who, which, and that, used to represent a 
noun and to connect with it a modifying clause, are 
called Relative Pronouns. 

A Relative Pronoun is a word used botli to represent a 
noun or pronoun and to connect with it a modifying clause. 

The noun or pronoun which a relative pronoun 
represents is called its Antecedent. 



138 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

195. The Forms of Relative Pronouns. 

The relative pronouns are: 

1. Simple — who (tvhose or whom), which, that, and 
what. 

2. Compound — whoever, whichever, whatever, whoso- 
ever, whichsoever, whatsoever. 

Who refers to persons; ivhich to inferior animals and 
things; and that, to persons, inferior animals, and things; 

as, 

1. Pupils who are studious will learn. 

2. Here is the knife which you lost. 

3. I enclose the money that I owe you. 

EXERCISE. 

196. (a) Name the adjective clauses. Tell what 
each modifies and give the antecedent of each relative 
pronoun : 



The man who can not govern himself is a slave. 

This is the knife that I want. 

The fur that warms a monarch warmed a bear. 

We return to the song that we enjoy. 

He who would find pearls must dive deep. 

The lady whose ring you wear is very generous. 



(b) Complete the adjective clauses in the following 
sentences by filling the blanks with appropriate pronouns. 
Name the antecedent of each: 

1. Those try will succeed. 

2. Some stores offer everything we want. 

8. Monarchs reward the men do their bidding. 



COMPOSITION. 139 

4. All I have I gained honestly. 

5. Every dollar I have is clear. 

6. The man house I am in is a philanthropist. 

7. He enters here must have a pure heart. 

8. I want a lawyer head is clear. 

9. This is a clerk you can trust. 

(c) Correctly use each of the following relatives in 
sentences of your own construction: 

who whose whom 

which that what 

whoever whosoever whatever 



COMPOSITION. 

197. Study of a poem: 

THE FEOST. 

The Frost looked forth, one still, clear night, 
And whispered, "Now I shall be out of sight; 
So through the valley and over the height 

In silence I'll take my way. 
I will not go on like that blustering train, 
The wind and the snow, the hail and the rain, 
Who make so much bustle and noise in vain, 

But I'll be as busy as they!" 

Then he flew to the mountain and powdered its crest, 
He lit on the trees, and their boughs he dressed 
With diamonds and pearls, and over the breast 

Of the quivering lake he spread 
A coat of mail, that it need not fear 
The downward point of many a spear 
Which he hung on its margin far and near, 

Where a rock could rear its head. 



140 p R IMA n y 11 a mm a n. 

He went to the windows of those who slept, 
And over each pane like a fairy crept: 
Wherever he breathed, wherever he stepped, 

By the light of the morn were seen 
Most beautiful things. There were flowers and trees, 
There were bevies of birds and swarms of bees. 
There were cities, and temples, and towers, and these 

All pictured in silver sheen! 

But he did one thing that was hardly fair — 
He peeped in the cupboard, and, finding there 
That all had forgotten for him to prepare — 

"Now, just to set them a-thinking, 
I'll bite this basket of fruit," said he; 
"This costly pitcher I'll burst in three, 
And the glass of water they've left for me 

Shall 'tcJiick!' to tell them I'm drinking." 

— Hannah Flagg Gould. 



What did the Frost regard as his advantage over the 
other elements named? 

Study the various ways in which freezing is described. 
Would as many ways be used in prose? Why say 
"powdered its crest"? What was a "coat of mail"? 
Its meaning here? On what canvas did the Frost 
paint? 

In what light were the paintings seen at their best? 
Why not at noon? What is the thought implied in 
"forgotten for him to prepare"? What happened to 
the pitcher? Why? 

In good, plain prose describe the effects of frost 
related in the poem. 

The following poems may be found appropriate for 
study. Read each of them carefully; look up new 
words and expressions in the dictionary or other work 
of reference; think out every obscure meaning, then tell 



COMPOSITION. 141 

the story in words of your own, quite different from 
those the poet used: 

"A Sudden Shower," by James Whitcomb Riley. 
"The Old Man's Dream," by Holmes. 
"Pegasus in Pound," by Longfellow. 

Consult the reader, the editions of the various poets, 
and numerous collections of poems for further poetic 
studies. 



198. Keview clauses; then write what you know 
of them in a short composition, following the outline 
below. Carefully paragraph what you write. 

Outline. 

1. General definition — give examples. 

2. Classification according to use — define each class and give 
examples. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

199. Bead these sentences and observe the use of 
the italicized words: 

1. George and Guy read good books. 

2. Both read easily and rapidly. 

3. George reads in English or in French. 
4- Guy studies while he reads. 

5. George reads for pleasure, but Guy reads 
for profit. 

What word connects two nouns in sentence 1? What 
connects the adverbs in sentence 2? The phrases in 
sentence 3? The propositions in sentences 4 and 5? 

Words used like and, or, while, and but, to unite 
words, phrases, clauses, propositions, or sentences, are 
called Conjunctions. Conjunction means joining to- 
gether. 



A Conjunction Is a word used to connect words, ph 
clauses, or propositions. 

142 



CONJUNCTIONS. 143 

EXERCISE. 

200. (a) Mention the conjunctions in the following 
sentences and tell what each connects: 

1. His deeds are brave and noble. 

2. Caesar came, and saw, and conquered. 

3. He is poor but proud. 

4. We can travel by land or by water. 

5. We expected snow, but it did not come. 

6. All men should work while they live. 

7. I shall start when the steamer leaves. 

8. They journeyed until night overtook them. 

9. Did you fish in the brook or in the river? 

10. Time and tide wait for no man. 

11. We love him, because he loved us. 

12. The boys will succeed if they are industrious. 

13. The wind blows, for the leaves wave. 

(b) Copy the following sentences, filling the blanks 
with appropriate conjunctions: 

1. I shall be ready the boat arrives. 

2. Water oil will not mix. 

3. We shall not go the day is cold. 

4. The train was wrecked no one was hurt. 

5. We made a fire it was cold. 

6. He raised his hand drew his sword. 

7. Wait, boys, I come. 

8. you study, you can not learn. 

9. He will not come he will send another. 

10. They left we returned. 

(c) Use in sentences each of the following words as 
conjunctions : 

before unless till 

because yet since 

for though until 



144 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

201. Conjunctions Classified. 

(a) 1. Mary and Lucy came. 

2. Mary may read or write. 

3. Lucy writes slowly but neatly. 

4. Mary came although she was sick. 

What does each of the above conjunctions unite? Are 
the parts thus connected in each sentence of equal 
importance or of equal rank? 

Conjunctions used like and, or, but, and although, 
to connect parts of equal rank, are called Coordinate 
Conjunctions. 

Coordinate means of equal order or rank. 

A Coordinate Conjunction is one that connects words, 
phrases, clauses, or propositions of equal rank. 

(b) The principal coordinate conjunctions are: 
and but or nor for also 

(c) 1. This is the knife which I found. 

2. You will fail unless you are industrious. 

3. The vase will break if you drop it. 

4. We did not think that the vase would break. 

Name the propositions in the above sentences. Name 
the clauses and tell what each one limits. What con- 
junctions unite the clauses with the words which they 
limit? 

Conjunctions used like which, if, unless, and that, 
to connect clauses to propositions, are called Subordinate 
Conjunctions. 

Subordinate means of lower order or unequal rank. 

A Subordinate Conjunction is one that connects clauses 
to propositions. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 145 

(d) The principal subordinate conjunctions are, 

1. The pure conjunctions: 

if though although unless, etc. 

2. The connectives — relative and interrogative: 

who which that as 



8. 


The connectives - 


-conjunctive adverbs: 




when 


where whither 




while 


whence why 



Obs. — Having a double office, relatives, interrogatives, and 
conjunctive adverbs are also properly called connectives. 



EXERCISE. 

202. (a) Classify the conjunctions in the following 
sentences and tell what they connect : 

1. Clara can sing and dance. 

2. Julia may go or remain. 

3. Sarah writes, but Susan recites. 

Jf. Men and women generally love the truth. 

5. This is the watch which I purchased. 

6. If you want knowledge, you must study for it. 

7. The evil that men do lives after them. 

8. I know not why he left us. 

9. Make hay while the sun shines. 

10. Remain where you are. 

11. Keep your shop and your shop will keep you. 

(b) Write sentences, using as connectives the fol- 
lowing words: 

who if while where 

which unless when whither 



146 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

INTEEJECTIONS. 

203. In the following sentences note the words 
that have no grammatical relation to the other words in 
the sentences: 

1. Hurrah! We have won the game. 

2. Oh! I hear the sound of guns. 

3. Ah! Have they gone? 

Name the suhject of each of the above sentences. 
Name the predicate of each. What word in sen- 
tence 1 forms no part of the subject or predicate? In 
sentence 2? In sentence 3? What word expresses joy? 
What expresses fear? What expresses surprise? 

Words like Hurrah, Oh, and Ah, used merely to 
express feeling or surprise, are called Interjections. 

Interjection means throivn in, or among, or betioeen. 



An Interjection is an exclamatory word used merely to 
express strong or sudden emotion. 



The interjection (always a capital letter) is gener- 
ally used with a noun; Oh is used when the interjection 
stands by itself. 

Rule: An interjection is usually followed by an excla- 



EXERCISE. 

204. (a) Mention the interjections in the following 
sentences and tell what feeling each one exi 

1. Alas! My hopes are gone. 

2. Fie! Fie! It is not true. 






QUOTATIONS. 147 

3. Halloa! Here we are. 

4. Hark! I hear strains of music. 

5. O Mother! I want that lily. 

6. Ah! I have sighed for rest. 

7. Well! well! Try again. 

8. Oh! I die, Horatio. 



(b) Use in sentences each of the following words as 
interjections: 



ah 





ha, ha 


alas 


oh 


fudge 


aha 


help 


indeed 


see 


bravo 


why 


hark 


hurry 


well 


hush 


come 


what 


hurrah 


there 


look 




QUOTATIONS. 





205. Copy the following sentences and notice what 
punctuation marks are used, and where they are placed: 

1. John said, "I wish I had a pony." 

2. "I wish," said John, "I had a pony." 

3. John said that he wished he had a pony. 

Who said a part of sentences 1 and 2? In which of 
these three sentences are the exact words of John used? 
In which one is John's thought expressed without the 
use of his exact words? 

The repetition of the exact words of another, in the 
expression of thought, is called a direct quotation; as, 
Webster said, " I still live." The words in such a quota- 
tion are said to be quoted. 



148 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

The repetition of another's thought, without the use 
of his exact words, is called an indirect quotation; as, 
Webster said that he still lived. 

The indirect quotation is usually introduced by that, 
sometimes by if, whether, etc. 

Eead the quotations on the preceding page. Which 
are direct? Which is indirect? 

Notice that the quotation in sentence 2 is divided 
by the interposition of other words. 



206. Rules to be Observed in the Use of 
Quotations. 

1. Begin a direct quotation ivith a capital letter when 
it expresses a complete thought. 

2. Set off a direct quotation with a comma, and 
enclose it ivith quotation marks ( " " ). 

3. Enclose loth parts of a divided quotation with 
quotation marks, and set off by commas the words 
interposed. 

4. Do not enclose an indirect quotation with quo- 
tation marks, but set it off by a comma, unless it 
consists of one statement only. 



Obs.— Titles of books, papers, poems, and pictures are often 
enclosed with quotation marks, thus: 

1. Wallace's "Ben Hur." 

2. Carlyle's "Critical Essays." 

3. Longfellow's "Evangeline." 

4. Landseer's "The Last Mourner." 



COMPOSITION. 149 

EXERCISE. 

207. (a) Copy the following sentences. Classify the 
quotations you find, and correctly punctuate and capi- 
talize: 

1. George said I am ready 

2. The girls said that they would sing 

3. Mary asks will you read 

4- I am brave said he and fear no danger 

5. The judge inquired are you guilty 

6. The prisoner muttered I am guilty 

7. I have done no wrong said Hypatia and fear no punishment 

8. John asked Charles how many books he had read 

9. Charles replied that he had read sixteen books 

(p) Write the above sentences, changing the form of 
each quotation — the direct to the indirect, the indirect 
to the direct. 

(c) Construct six sentences containing quotations — 
three direct and three indirect. 



COMPOSITION. 

208. Commit to memory the following adaptation 
of ^Esop's Fable: 

THE WOLF AND THE LAMB. 

A wolf saw a lamb drinking at a brook, and set about find- 
ing some reason for catching him. So he went to a place a 
little higher up and called out: 

"How dare you muddle the water that I am drinking?" 
"How can I," said the lamb, humbly, "when I drink with 
the tips of my lips only? And, besides, the water runs from 
you to me, not from me to you!" 



150 PRIMA RT GRAMMAR. 

"Well, you called my father names a year ago," said the 
wolf, readily finding another reason. 

"I was not born a year ago," said the poor lamb. 

"You may make ever so good excuses," said the wolf, finally; 
"I shall eat you all the same." 

This fable teaches that, when one has made up his mind to 
do wrong, he is not stopped by the best of reasons. 

— From "Fables and Folk Stories," by Horace E. Scudder. 

Note carefully how all marks of punctuation are 
used, and be prepared to write and punctuate the fable 
from dictation. How many quotations are there in this 
fable? Are they direct or indirect? 

Eewrite the fable, using indirect quotations instead of 
direct. 

Write a similar story. Choose, if you wish, one of 
the subjects given below: 

The Ox and the Horse. 
The Cat and the Dog. 
The Bee and the Butterfly. 
The Farmer and the Merchant. 



209. Eeview conjunctions; then, following the out- 
line below, write what you know of them in the form 
of a composition. 

Outline. 

1. General definition — give examples. 

2. Classification according to use — define each class and give 
examples. 



ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. 

PRINCIPAL AND SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS. 

210. The Elements Classified. 

(a) Observe trie elements of the following sentences as 
to rank: 

1. Some men are students of music. 

2. Many men now study music. 

What words here are necessary in order to have a 
sentence at all? "What words could be omitted? What 
grammatical elements are necessary in every sentence? 

The grammatical or unmodified subject and the gram- 
matical or unmodified predicate are essential to every 
sentence and are called the Principal Elements; as, 

1. Some men are students of music. 

2. Many men now study music. 

What word in sentence 1 modifies the subject? What 
words modify the predicate? Are these of equal rank 
with the subject and predicate, or subordinate to them? 

Words, or groups of words, used as mere modifiers of 
other words, are called Subordinate Elements; as, 

1. Some men are students of music. 

2. Many men now study music. 

151 



152 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

(b) Observe the elements of these sentences with refer- 
ence to their completeness: 

1. Some men are students of music. 

2. Many men now study music. 

"What is the grammatical or simple subject of sen- 
tence 1? Is it the entire or comjjlete subject? Is it 
logically all of which the sentence makes assertion? 

What modifier forms part of the complete or logical 
subject? 

The subject without its modifiers is called the Simple 
or Grammatical subject. 

The subject with its modifiers is called the Complex 
or Logical subject. 

What is the grammatical predicate of sentence 1? Is 
it logically all that is asserted of the subject? What is 
the logical or complete predicate? 

The predicate without its modifiers is called the Simple 
or Grammatical predicate. 

The predicate with its modifiers is called the Complex 
or Logical predicate. 

EXERCISE. 

211. Copy the following sentences and underline 
the principal elements. Tell what each subordinate 
element modifies, and name the logical subject and the 
logical predicate of each sentence: 

1. The children skate gracefully. 

2. The old clock stopped short. 

3. Some plants grow fast. 

4- Blue diamonds are very rare. 

5. Kind words are seldom forgotten. 

6. High mountains are grand. 

7. The ear is the soul's gateway. 



ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. 153 

8. A free people should be educated. 

9. Life's course is short. 

10. Scipio routed Hannibal's forces. 

11. The new academy is well built. 

12. The minister loves little children. 

13. No man can serve two masters. 



PKLNCIPAL ELEMENTS. 

212. The principal or leading elements of a sen- 
tence are the Grammatical Subject and the Gram- 
matical Predicate. 

213. The Grammatical Subject. 

The grammatical subject must be a substantive. In 
form it may be, 

1. A noun or pronoun: 

1. The men are young. 

2. They fight their foes. 

3. Some days must be dark. 

4. Some stars are suns. 

5. He lives where it never rains. 

6. Napoleon was Emperor of France. 

2. A phrase: 

1. To steal is base. 

2. To work hard is honorable. 

3. To see is to believe. 

4.. To speak deceitfully is sin. 

5. To study should be a pleasure. 

6. To condemn unheard is unwise. 



154 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

S. A clause: 

1. That you have wronged me doth appear. 

2. Why he left is unknown. 

3. Who wrote the letter is uncertain. 
4-. How can we go is the question. 
5. When we shall write is uncertain. 

EXERCISE. 

214. (a) Mention the grammatical subject of each of 
the foregoing sentences and tell its form. Give the 
logical subject. 

(b) Construct sentences, one having a noun as subject, 
one a pronoun, one an infinitive, and one a clause. 

215. The Grammatical Predicate. 

The grammatical predicate must be a finite verb or a 
copulative verb (see Sec. 59) with an attribute. 

Thus it may be, 

1. A finite verb: 

1. We live in the city. 

2. I saw her yesterday. 

3. We have lived in the country. 
4- He may have lived in Europe. 

5. My son will have finished his work to-morrow. 

6. How merrily the birds do sing! 

2. A copulative verb and attribute: 



Horses are quadrupeds. 

James is successful. 

The fruit is ripe. 

He is needy. 

He is in need (needy). 

The gates are of pearl (pearly). 



ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. 155 

EXEKCISE. 

216. (a) Mention the grammatical predicate of each 
of the foregoing sentences and describe its form. Give 
the logical predicate. 

(b) Construct sentences, some having a single verb as 
predicate, some a verb-phrase, and some a copulative 
verb and attribute. 

217. Forms of the Attribute. 

In the following sentences are shown the various 
forms of the attribute as a part of the grammatical 
predicate. The attribute may be, 

1. A word — noun, pronoun, or adjective: 



1. 

3. 


It was he. 4- Gold is soft. 
He is proud. 5. Iron is a metal. 
It will be cold. 6. It is they. 


A phrase — prepositional or infinitive: 


l. 

3. 

4- 
5. 


To think is to speak low. 
To speak is to think aloud. 
The child is without friends. 
The table was of onyx. 
To study is to learn. 


A clause: 


1. 

2. 
3. 
4- 
5. 


The question is wliere shall we go. 
My opinion was that you should travel. 
His inquiry will be, "Who is there?" 
My reply was, ' ' How can we go ? " 
The rumor is that he is wounded. 



156 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE. 

218. (a) Mention the .attribute in each of the fore- 
going sentences and describe its form. 

(b) Construct sentences, some having a noun as attri- 
bute, some a pronoun, some a prepositional phrase, some 
an infinitive, and some a clause. 



SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS. 

219. According to their use, subordinate elements 
are classified as Adjective, Objective, and Adverbial. 

220. Adjective Elements. 



An Adjective Element is one that modifies a noun or 
pronoun. 

In form it may be, 

1. A word — adjective or appositive: 

1. Wise men are useful. 

,?. Two old men rode away. 

3. The people honor great men. 

4. Mv son John is faithful. 



A phrase — prepositional, participial, or infinitive: 



Men of wisdom can be useful. 

That man coming yonder is my uncle. 

Time to come is called future. 

A child severely hurt will cry. 

The way to prosper is to work. 

His journey to the "White House was triumphant. 



ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. 157 

3. A clause: 

1. Men who are wise are usually modest. 

2. This is the stanza that I wrote. 

3. He who runs may read the signs. 

4. The reason why he left is unknown. 

5. He prayeth best who loveth best. 

6. Those who live in glass houses should not throw 

stones. 

EXERCISE. 

221. (a) Mention the adjective elements in the fore- 
going sentences. Give their form and tell what each 
one modifies. 

(b) Write sentences containing adjective elements — 
two in the word-form, two in the phrase-form, and two 
in the clause-form. 



222. Objective Elements. 



An Objective Element is one that limits a transitive 
verb or verbal, by telling what or whom the action affects. 



It may be known by its answering the questions, what 
or lohom? In form it may be, 



1. A word — a noun or pronoun: 

1. May saw Mabel. 

2. Joseph helped me. 

8. She heard the news. 

4- Did you see the eclipse? 

5. Hear the sledges with the bells! 

6. Can a mother forget her child? 



158 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

2. A phrase — participial or infinitive: 

1. We expect to see better days. 

2. They enjoy writing letters. 

3. The children are learning to read. 
4- He admits having done a wrong. 

5. Few boys enjoy chopping wood. 

6. The bird intends to fly. 

3. A clause: 

1. I see that you improve. 

2. Do you know why he wrote the letter? 

3. We hope to hear that you are prosperous. 

4. Did you know that I was promoted? 

5. I know that our nation is free. 

EXERCISE. 

223. (a) Mention the objective elements in the fore- 
going sentences. Give their form and tell what each 
one limits. 

(b) Write sentences containing objective elements — 
three in the word-form, three in the phrase-form, and 
two in the clause-form. 

224. Adverbial Elements. 

An Adverbial Element is one that modifies a verb or 
verbal, an adjective or adverb, by denoting time, place, 
cause, manner, or degree. 

It may be known by its answering the questions, 
when? where? why? how? or how much? In form it 
may be, 

1. A word — an adverb: 

1. We shall be ready soon. 

2. To-morrow I will see you. 



ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. 159 

3. The cars run rapidly. 

4. Our hopes are very bright. 

5. We arrived quite early. 

6. That is a very good excuse. 

7. Sometimes people ask strange questions. 

2. A phrase — prepositional or infinitive: 

1. Shall we arrive on time? 

2. They will move in the winter. 

3. The boys rowed along the shore. 

4. We shall sail down the Hudson. 

5. I went to see the paintings. 

6. They came to scoff, but remained to pray. 

7. He resolved to fight for liberty. 

3. A clause: 

1. The violets will appear when spring comes. 

2. If you work you will prosper. 

3. He prospers because he works. 

4. We work that we may prosper. 
Careless people speak before they think. 
I did as he told me. 
When showers fall, plants grow. 
I shall be glad when the robins come again. 

EXERCISE. 

225. (a) Mention the adverbial elements in the fore- 
going sentences. Give their form and tell what each 
one modifies. 

(b) Write sentences containing adverbial elements — 
three in the word-form, three in the phrase-form, and 
three in the clause-form. 

(c) Choose a prose paragraph in your reader which 
contains a number of adverbial elements. Classify them 
and tell what they modify. 



160 



PRIMA BY GRAM MA II 



INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS. 



Interjections, names of persons addressed, and 
words or phrases merely introductory have no grammat- 
ical relation to other words, and are called Independent 

Elements; as, 



Hurrah! The game is won. 

Well, what shall we do? 

O father! I want that diamond. 

Mary, have you read "Ivanhoe"? 

My dear sir, hear my argument. 

By the way, have you heard the news? 

Fellow-citizens, we have met for a purpose. 

Hark! How merrily the bells jingle! 

Soft! I did but dream! 

O mother! Can you not forgive? 

Hush! my babe, lie still and slumber. 

Bravo! That strain was exquisite. 

Oh! speak again, bright angel. 



227. Rules for Punctuation. 

1. The exclamation point should follow the inter- 
jection and the exclamatory phrase. 

2. Set off by commas icords used in address and 
those merely introductory. 

EXERCISE. 

228. («) Mention the principal and the independent 
elements in the above sentences. Tell whether the latter 
are interjections, words of address, or introductory. 



(b) "Write sentences containing independent elements — 
two of each kind above described. 



LETTER WRITING. 161 

LETTER WRITING. 

229. In the following letter observe carefully the 
arrangement, the capital letters, and the punctuation: 

A LETTER. {Heading.) 

{jiLoAAMJ, olliy., 

{Introduction, fowwUj, A I i<\\>. 

ijMJVUAA/Vvkj: (Body.) 

CMJAh/OJ ml/ MruvdnAj /YMfWWVW. &AJm\J 

i r ^iMmih/ hsmw j Awm/m^^ 

\aLoj amJu (J oJw omiw ixr mw MaAMj 
Lxav Ou\kJv i^-zmx^VurwrXoV oj md/ hkofou. 

mwW hmMj Jww, d/nA/ mw mnMJvvwmim 
WlkJje/ AA/ii/vie/. Uwil|iw^ 



162 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



Mb/. (Jai/vwgW 

oj ornhfomw umJ$ww. 

o! /lA^yt^/ujrli^ mw for mm/ <mh w- 

w^mhms^ mmkojvwmA/. 

(jmmuj/ for hw mw o^jmw Mwkm^ 



fomw, dl 



ojmj 



(Subscription. ) 



\ ukruA^/ MmJuiAunjj/, 



Copy the above letter, and notice that it consists of four 
parts — the heading, the introduction, the body, and the 
subscription. 

The heading consists of (1) the name of the place, (2) 
the date of the tvriting. 



LETTER WRITING. 163 

The introduction consists of (1) the address, (2) the 
salutation. In letters to friends, the address is usually 
omitted from the introduction. 

The body consists of the message. 

The subscription consists of (1) the term of respect, 
(2) the signature. 

Notice the paragraphs in the body, and be prepared 
to write and punctuate all parts of the foregoing letter 
from dictation. 

The superscription of a letter is the address on the 
envelope. It should be written as shown in the dia- 
gram: 



\\Mmaj, 

M. 



Imagine that you are "Frank Mayo" and write an 
answer to "George Granger." 

Write a letter of three paragraphs to your brother in 
Danville, Ky., about the events of yesterday. 

Write a letter of four paragraphs to your sister in 
Nashville, Tenn., telling her how you spent your Christ- 
mas holidays. 



164 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

ELEMENTS CLASSIFIED ACCOKDING TO 

STRUCTURE. 

230. According to structure an element may also 
be Simple, Complex, or Compound. 

231. Simple, Complex, and Compound Ele- 
ments. 

A Simple Element is one having no modifier. 



A Complex Element is a simple element combined with 
its modifiers. 

A Compound Element is an element consisting of two 
or more simple or complex elements united by a coordi- 
nate conjunction. 



232. Forms of the Subject. 

The subject may be, 

1. Simple: 

1. John studies history. 

2. To read is instructive. 

3. Iron is the most useful of metals. 
If. To steal is base and criminal. 

5. To paint a cloud is very difficult. 

6. God paints the lily white. 



Compl( 



1. Ten men volunteered to help. 

2. To toalk along the beach is pleasant 

3. Skating on ice is fine sport. 

4. Strange music was heard. 

5. To sing among the branches is a bird's delight. 

6. Riding on horseback is healthful exercise. 

7. To study faithfully is to be wise. 






ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. 165 



3. Compound: 



Jane and Julia attend school. 

To work and to flay are pleasures. 

Politeness and learning make a gentleman. 

John or James will be present. 

Illinois and Iowa are important states. 

Adjectives and adverbs are modifiers. 



Obs. — The modified part of any complex element is called its 
basis. The elements united to -form a compound element are 
called members. 

EXERCISE. 

233. (a) Name and classify the subjects in the fore- 
going sentences. Name the members of each compound 
subject and the conjunction which joins them. Name 
the basis of each complex subject and its modifier. 

(b) Construct sentences — two with a simple subject, 
two with a compound, and three with a complex. 

234. Forins of the Predicate. 

The predicate may be, 

1. Simple : 

1. The streets are long. 

2. Tbe cold of winter is severe. 

3. Some stars are suns. 

4. Our books and slates are new. 

5. Beautiful is the setting sun. 

2. Complex: 

1. The streets are very long. 

2. The girls sing well. 

3. Were the pictures very pretty? 

4- William Tell was a skillful archer. 
5. Longfellow wrote many great poems. 



166 PRIMARY ORAMMAR. 

3. Compound : 

1. The girls sing and dance. 

2. The men may walk or ride. 

3. Our streets are long and wide. 

4. His goods are new and fresh. 

5. Were the parlors light and cheery? 

6. Are we early or late? 

EXERCISE. 

235. (a) Name and classify the predicates of the 
foregoing sentences. Name the members of such as are 
compound and the conjunctions that unite them. 

(b) Construct two sentences with a simple predicate, 
three with a complex, and three with a compound. 



236. Forms of the Adjective Element. 

The adjective element may be, 

1. Simple: 

1. Morning is a good time to study. 

2. They were students of history. 

3. You have liberty to write. 

4. Strange reports arose. 

5. He advanced fifty dollars. 

6. Did you gather wild roses? 

2. Complex : 

1. Youth is the best time to gain knowledge. 

2. The boys are students of ancient history. 

3. Very strange reports arose. 

4. They are workmen of great skill. 

5. You have my permission to join the class. 

6'. The effort to overthrow error is praiseworthy. 



ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. 167 

3. Compound: 

1. The prairies of Illinois and Iowa are fertile. 

2. This is the truth, pure and simple. 

3. We have forces armed and ready. 

4. He spoke words violent but true. 

5. The hills of New York resemble those of Maine 

and Vermont. 

6. You have time to study and to play. 

EXERCISE. 

237. (a) Classify the adjective elements in the fore- 
going sentences and tell what they modify. Name the 
bases of such as are complex, the members of such as 
are compound, and the conjunctions that unite them. 

(b) Write sentences — two having a simple adjective 
element, two a complex, and two a compound. 



238. Forms of the Objective Element. 

The objective element may be, 

1. Simple: 

1. He and I intend to go. 

2. We saw forests. 

3. I desire to travel. 

4. I shall dismiss you soon. 

5. Do you like to study? 

6. We heard music. 

2. Complex: 

1. He and I intend to go south. 

2. We saw great forests. 

3. She danced a minuet. 

4. We played a winning game. 

5. Did you see that beautiful rocket? 

6. I desire to travel in Europe. 



168 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

3. Compound : 

1. We expect to go and to succeed. 

2. We saw forests and field*. 

3. Bring a pen or a pencil. 

4. Farmers harvest wheat, oats, and rye. 

5. Merchants sell boots, shoes, hats, and caps. 

6. Shall we find gold or silver? 

EXERCISE. 

239. (a) Classify the objective elements in the fore- 
going sentences and tell what each one modifies. Name 
the bases of such as are complex, the members of such 
as are compound, and the conjunctions uniting them. 

(b) Write two sentences having a simple objective 
element, two a complex, and two a compound. 

240. Forms of the Adverbial Element. 

The adverbial element may be, 

1. Simple: 

1. We have come to learn. 

2. Good students are always prompt. 

3. They will arrive to-morrow. 

4. Will he return immediately? 

5. The old home still remains. 

6. We shall sail before night. 



Complex: 



We have come to learn grammar. 

Good students are nearly always prompt. 

We shall arrive very soon. 

Will you walk across the meadow? 

They may have ridden through the town. 

He reads very well. 



ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. 169 

3. Compound: 

1. Men travel to see and to learn. 

2. We shall travel in France or in Spain. 

3. How swiftly and gracefully the birds fly! 
4- They live peaceably and happily. 

5. Shall we start to-day or to-morrow? 

6. We may read for pleasure or for profit. 

EXERCISE. 

241. (a) Classify the adverbial elements in the fore- 
going sentences and tell what each modifies. Name the 
bases of such as are complex, the members of such as 
are compound, and the conjunctions used to unite them. 

(b) Write sentences containing adverbial elements, two 
simple, two complex, and two compound. 



242. Arrangement of the Elements. 

(a) The natural order of the elements is, 

1. The grammatical subject preceded by its word 
modifiers and followed by its phrase and clause 
modifiers: 

1. The days of childhood are pleasant. 

2. The tornadoes are very destructive. 

2. The grammatical predicate followed by its objec- 
tive modifiers and usually by its adverbial: 

1. Time is measured by years. 

2. They soon found a home in Iowa. 

3. He certainly will come to-morrow. 

(b) For the sake of emphasis, and to change a 
sentence from the declarative to an interrogative or 



170 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

imperative form, the natural order is changed to the 
inverted order: 

1. Pleasant are the days of childhood. 

2. By years, time is measured. 

3. Thirty days hath September. 

4. Come to-morrow, he certainly will. 

5. Are the tornadoes very destructive? 

(c) For the sake of clearness, subordinate elements 
should be placed as near as possible to the words which 
they are intended to modify: 

1. I bought a pair of new shoes (not a new pair, etc.). 

2. We know well how he acted (not how he acted well). 

3. I have only four days to finish (not to finish only). 

4. The man who is sick needs a physician (not The man needs a 

physician who is sick). 

5. Found, by a gentleman, a gold watch with steel hands (not 

Found, a gold watch, by a gentleman with steel hands). 

EXERCISE. 

243. (a) Change to their natural order the elements 
in the following sentences. Name the principal elements. 
Name the subordinate elements and tell whether they are 
words, phrases, or clauses, and tell what each modifies: 

1. Blessed are the peacemakers. 

2. On the ice gather the schoolboys. 

3. Divine is the hand that made us. 

4. An able statesman was Webster. 

5. From the north comes a wintry blast. 

6. Because He first loved us, we love Him. 

7. Against the rocks dash the waves. 

8. Is croquet your favorite game? 

9. To kindred hearts, hearts respond. 

10. May this bud prove a beautiful flower! 

(b) Write four sentences, using the inverted order. 



LETTER WRITING. 



Ill 



LETTER WRITING. 



244. Study the following letters until you can write 
them correctly from dictation. 

BUSINESS LETTERS. 

Business letters should be clear, brief, direct, and 
courteous. All matters not connected with the business 
at hand should be excluded. 



JmaJv 



(^ilu/ Aiac/ >Ai^ii<5Un£/ /^€V ^ 



(mw Majw fwamuAj am/ mWv JU&OMmw!) 

AAaAA/W, 



ijwwmj. 



172 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 



OAfcroriy Q)k 

0MM£WUm/: 

245. Having made yourself familiar with the 
arrangement, punctuation, and use of capitals in the 
foregoing, write letters as here directed: 

Write a letter to Marshall Field & Co., State and 
Washington streets, Chicago, ordering a pair of kid 
gloves, a necktie, and a pair of cuff buttons. 



LETTER WRITING. 173 

Write a letter to a railroad company asking the rates, 
time tables, accommodations, etc., for a trip to Yellow- 
stone Park or some desirable summer resort. 

Write a letter to Kand, McNally & Co., publishers, 
Chicago, asking for a price list of their publications. 

Write a letter to a friend in Fresno, CaL, asking for 
the facts about the climate of California, and the price 
of a ten-acre vineyard. 

Write a letter to your absent father, describing a pony 
and asking for money to buy it. 

Write a letter offering for sale a residence and lot 
you are supposed to own, naming its valuable features 
and your terms. 



CLASSIFICATION OF THE SENTENCE. 



SIMPLE, COMPLEX, AND COMPOUND 
SENTENCES. 

246. Sentences Classified According to Form. 

1. Guy has a white dog. 

2. Guy has a dog that is white. 

3. Guy has a dog and it is white. 

Which sentence above contains but one subject and 
predicate? Is it a proposition? Name its subject and 
predicate. What word describes dog? 

Which sentence contains a proposition and a clause? 
To what word of sentence 1 is the clause equivalent? 
Does that is ivhite alone express complete sense or does 
it seem dependent upon some previous word? 

Which sentence contains two propositions? What 
word makes it is white of equal rank with Guy lias a 
dog? 

According to form, all sentences like number 1, 
containing but one proposition, are simple sentences; 
like number 2, containing a proposition and one or 
more clauses, are complex; like number 3, containing 
two or more propositions, are compound. 
174 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 175 

Analysis of the Sentence. 

247. Analysis in grammar is resolving a sentence 
into its elements and giving the office of each. 

In analyzing observe the following Order of Anal- 
ysis: (1) Name the kind of sentence — whether simple, 
complex, or compound; declarative, interrogative, impera- 
tive, or exclamatory. (2) Name the simple subject. 
(3) Name the simple predicate. (4) Name the modi- 
fiers of the subject. (5) Name the complex subject. 
(6) Name the modifiers of the predicate. (7) Name 
the complex predicate. 

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 

248. A Simple Sentence is one which contains hut 
one proposition; as, 

1. The prairie is level. 

2. Six and four are ten. 

3. Our lines have fallen in pleasant places. 

Obs. — The following analyses may serve as guides or models. 

249. Simple Elements. 

Model I.— Birds fly. 

This is a sentence, simple and declarative. (Why?) 
Birds is the subject because it represents that object of 
which something is asserted ; fly is the predicate because 
it represents that action which is asserted of the subject. 

This analysis may be expressed by placing a horizon- 
tal line of convenient length between the subject and 
the predicate: 

Birds fly. 



176 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE. 

250. Analyze the following simple sentences: 

1. Birds carol. 4. Girls sing. 

2. Fishes swim. 5. Reading enlightens. 

3. Children play. G. Study cultivates. 

Note: At first require the pupil to give reasons for each 
statement in the analysis. 

251. Complex Elements. 

Model II. — Some birds fly rapidly. 

This is a simple, declarative sentence, of which birds 
is the simple subject, and fly is the simple predicate. 
The subject is limited by some, an adjective element. 
Some birds is the complex subject. The predicate is 
modified by rapidly, an adverbial element. Fly rapidly 
is the complex predicate. 

This analysis may be expressed by writing the princi- 
pal elements as in Model I, and placing the subordinate 
elements under the words which they modify, and a little 
to the right: 

birds fly 

Some rapidly 

EXERCISE. 

252. (a) Analyze the following sentences: 

1. Some men work hard. 3. The days pass pleasantly. 

2. Few men overwork. 4- Ten years have gone already. 

(b) Write four sentences containing adjective and 
adverbial elements. 

(c) Select from your geography lesson four short 
sentences containing adjective and adverbial elements, 
and write out the analysis of each as above. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. Ill 

253. Complex Elements (Objective). 

Model III. — The boys study ancient history. 

This is a simple, declarative sentence, of which boys is 
the simple subject, and study is the simple predicate. The 
subject is limited by the, an adjective element. The hoys 
is the complex subject. The predicate is modified by 
ancient history, a complex object, of which history, the 
basis, is modified by ancient, an adjective element; study 
ancient history is the complex predicate. 

This analysis may be written as in Model II, with 
the addition that a symbol is used with history to show 
that it is objective and not adverbial: 

boys study 

The historyO 

ancient 

EXERCISE. 

254. (a) Analyze the following sentences: 

1. My kitten caught three mice. 

2. Franklin invented the lightning rod. 

3. The body requires good food. 

4. The mason built a strong wall. 

5. The boys played a winning game. 

6. Oh, see the beautiful lilies! 

(b) Write four sentences, each containing an adjective 
and an objective element. 

255. Compound Elements (Principal). 

Model, IV. — Virtue and happiness are mother and daughter. 

This is a simple, declarative sentence, of which virtue 
and happiness is the compound subject, and are mother 
and daughter is the compound predicate. The first and 



178 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

unites the members of the subject; the second and 
unites the members of the predicate. 

This analysis is written by connecting the compound 
elements with a brace and using an oblique cross as a sym- 
bol to show that the attribute is a part of the compound 

predicate: 

{Virtue ( mother 

and are X \ and 

happiness ( daughter 

EXERCISE. 

256. (a) Analyze the following sentences: 

1. Mary and George sing and play. 

2. Clouds and storms darken the sky. 

3. Schools and books train and furnish the mind. 

4. Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution. 

5. Each boy and girl wore a smiling face. 

6. Politeness and culture make a gentleman. 

(b) Write four sentences, each containing a compound 
subject, or predicate, or both. Be prepared to analyze 
them. 

257. Compound Elements (Objective). 

Model V. — Take this peach and that apple. 

This is a simple, imperative sentence, of which thou, 
understood, is the subject, and take is the simple predi- 
cate. The predicate is modified by this peach and that 
apple, a compound objective element, both members of 
which are complex. Peach, the basis of the first mem- 
ber, is limited by this, an adjective element; apple, the 
basis of the second, is limited by that, an adjective ele- 
ment. And is the connective. Take this peach and that 
apple is the complex predicate. 



LETTER WRITING. 179 

This analysis may be written thus: 

(thou) Take 

peachO 

this 
and 
\ appleO 
I that 

EXERCISE. 
258. (a) Analyze the following sentences: 

1. We crossed the forest and the glen. 

2. They study grammar, history, and arithmetic. 

3. Do you see the moon and the stars? 

4. Hear the sledges and the bells! 

5. Horses eat grass, hay, and grain. 

(b) Construct three sentences, having compound objec- 
tive elements, and write the analysis of each. 

(c) In a similar manner analyze the following sentences 
containing compound adverbial elements: 

1. The steamer moved away slowly and gracefully. 

2. They were faithful here and abroad. 

3. You shall find happiness somewhere or somehow. 

4. The pendulum swings backward and forward. 



LETTER WRITING. 

INFORMAL NOTES. 

259. Study carefully the following informal notes. 
Observe their briefness, the plan and arrangement of 
parts, the punctuation and capitalization, and be prepared 
to write letters modeled after them: 



180 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

An Informal Invitation. 

In letters of invitation the date is placed at the close, 
as in the following. Many prefer it so placed in letters 
to friends: 



MAJKJmMA/: 

/yvu/(m/Mvvy^-(D/iM/ i/xwAiwm/. (QdxJv 
MAmmjlmJmh/. 



LETTER WRITING. 181 

The Reply. 



OJ 



Ami 



\ MfJUi/ OJ j AJVW $AMW AW Mwll MAAMJ \ 

<A4jelul/©iiWy/. 



Imagine yourself to have been a member of this 
" Open-Eye Club," and write a letter to a friend describ- 
ing your excursion. State the number who went on the 
excursion, what specimens you found, what use you made 
of your microscope, your bright eyes, your glass and 
hammer. 



182 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Be careful to place the date in the lower left-hand 
corner, and one line lower than that on which the 
subscription is written. In informal letters it is not 
customary to write the name or address of the person 
addressed in the letter. In formal letters, beginning 
with "Dear Sir," "Dear Madam/' "Sir," "Gentlemen," 
etc., the name and address should be placed either in 
the upper or lower left-hand corner of the page. 

Write a letter of invitation to a friend, inviting him 
or her to attend a nutting party. Write a reply to an 
invitation to a game of tennis. 



260. Complex Elements (Participle as Subject 
or as Object). 

Model VI. — 1. Kiding fast is sometimes enjoyable. 
2. I regret having written the letter. 

1. This is a simple, declarative sentence, of which 
the verbal riding is the simple subject, and is enjoy- 
able is the simple predicate. The subject is modified by 
fast, an adverbial element. Biding fast is the complex 
subject. The predicate is modified by sometimes, an 
adverbial element. Is sometimes enjoyable is the com- 
plex predicate. 

The analyses of sentences 1 and 2 may be written 
thus: 

Riding is X enjoyable 

fast sometimes 

I regret 

having writtenO 
letterO 
the 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 183 

EXERCISE. 

261. (a) Analyze the following sentences: 

1. Reading steadily often injures the eyes. 

2. Walking rapidly is a recreation. 

3. Sawing wood is good exercise. 
It-, Earning money is a duty. 

(5) Analyze the following sentences, containing parti- 
cipial phrases used as objective elements: 

1. Boys enjoy skating fast. 

2. He dislikes rising early. 

3. We dread crossing the ocean. 

(c) Construct four sentences — two using a participial 
phrase as the subject, and two using a participial phrase 
as the objective element. Write the aualysis of each. 

262. Complex Elements (Participle as an Ad- 
jective Element). 

Model VII. — Hopes fondly cherished are sometimes blighted. 

This is a simple, declarative sentence, of which hopes 
is the simple subject, and are blighted is the simple 
predicate. The subject is modified by the phrase fondly 
cherished, an adjective element, complex, of which 
cherished, the basis, is modified by fondly, an adverbial 
element. Hopes fondly cherished is the complex subject. 
The predicate is modified by sometimes, an adverbial ele- 
ment. Are sometimes blighted is the complex predicate. 

This analysis may be written thus: 

Hopes are blighted 

cherished sometimes 

fondly 



184 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE. 

263. (a) Analyze the following sentences: 

1. The sailors, quickty diving, recovered the treasures. 

2. Firmly united, they withstood the foe. 

3. Help, willingly given, is acceptable. 

(b) Construct three sentences containing a participial 
phrase used as an adjective element. Write the analysis 
of each. 

264. Complex Elements (Infinitive as Subject 
or as Attribute). 

Model VIII. — To bear our fate is to conquer it. 

This is a simple, declarative sentence, of which to bear 
is the simple subject, and is to conquer is the simple 
predicate. Is is the copula, and the phrase to conquer 
is the attribute. The subject is modified by our fate, an 
objective element, complex, of which fate, the basis, is 
modified by our, an adjective element. To bear our fate 
is the complex subject. The predicate is modified by it, 
an objective element. Is to conquer it is the complex 
predicate. 

This analysis may be written thus: 



To bear 


is X to conquer 


fateO 


ito 


our 





EXERCISE. 
265. (a) Analyze the following sentences: 

1. To obey law is a duty. 

2. To delay longer is unsafe. 

3. To see the sun is pleasant. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 185 

(b) Construct three sentences, each containing an 
infinitive phrase used as the subject. "Write the analysis 
of each. 

(c) Analyze the following sentences containing infin- 
itive phrases used as adjective elements: 

1. A desire to excel is praiseworthy. 

2. The time to begin has come. 

3. The way to learn is to study. 

(a) Construct three sentences, using an infinitive phrase 
as an adjective element. Write the analysis of each. 

(e) Analyze the following sentences containing infin- 
itive phrases as adverbial elements: 

1. We left the path to gather flowers. 

2. They came to visit me. 

3. I come to bury Caesar. 

4. He rose to speak. 

(/) Construct three sentences, each containing an 
infinitive phrase used as an adverbial element. Write 
the analysis of each. 

(g) Analyze the following sentences containing infin- 
itive phrases used as objective elements: 

1. We intend to see the show. 

2. They have learned to sing. 

3. I love to fly my kite. 

(h) Construct three sentences, each containing an 
infinitive phrase used as an objective element. Write 
the analysis of each. 

Obs. — In the analysis of the sentences under Sec. 265 (c, e, g), 
vary the model so as to give the correct name to each element. 



186 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

266. Complex Elements (Prepositional). 

Model IX. — Men of industry soon become men of much wealth. 

(a) This is a simple, declarative sentence, of which men 
is the simple subject, and become men is the simple 
predicate; become is the copulative verb, and men is 
the attribute. The subject is modified by the phrase of 
industry, an adjective element. Men of industry is the 
complex subject. Become is modified by soon, an adver- 
bial element, and men by the phrase of much wealth, an 
adjective element, complex, of which wealth, the basis, 
is modified by much, an adjective element. Soon become 
men of much wealth is the complex predicate. 

This analysis may be written thus: 

Men become X men 

of industry soon 

of wealth 
much 

(b) For a short form of analysis the following may be 
used: 

A simple, declarative sentence, whose subject noun 
men is modified by the adjective phrase of industry; the 
predicate verb become is modified by the adverb soon, and 
the attribute noun men by the adjective phrase of much 
wealth. 

EXERCISE. 

267. («) Analyze the following sentences: 

1. Tidings of success fly fast. 

2. A life of love is the life of heaven. 

3. Tints of beauty paint the sky. 

4. The time for study is past. 

5. Scenes in Nature should be lessons for us. 

6. The people along the road kindly cheered us. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 187 

(b) Construct three sentences, each containing a 
prepositional phrase used as an adjective element. Write 
the analysis of each. 



(c) Analyze the following sentences. Use Model IX, 
but vary it so as to give the correct name to the elements: 

1. The boat was on the shore. 

2. There it lay for several hours. 

3. I was led across the meadow. 

4. Roaming among the hills is pleasant. 

5. The dew is on the grass again. 

(d) Construct three sentences, each containing a 
prepositional phrase used as an adverbial element. 
Write the analysis of each. 

268. Independent Elements. 

Model X.—l. Hark! I hear music. 

2. By the way, have you heard the news? 

1. This is a simple, declarative sentence, of which / is 
the subject and hear is the simple predicate. The predi- 
cate is modified by music, an objective element. Hear 
music is the complex predicate. Hark! is an independ- 
ent element. 

The analyses of sentences 1 and 2 may be written thus: 

Hark! 

I hear 

musicO 

By way 
the 

you have heard 

newsO 
the 



188 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE. 
269. (a) Analyze the following sentences: 

1. Mary, will you shut that door? 

2. Sir, you can not have it. 

3. Oh, look at that parade! 

4. Oh, sir, can this be true? 

5. Poor man! how he suffers! 

(b) Construct four sentences, each containing an 
independent element. Write the analysis of each. 

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 



270. A Complex Sentence is one which contains a 
proposition and one or more clauses; as, 

1. He who sotcs his land trusts in God. 

2. Will you write while I dictate? 



271. The Clause as an Adjective Element. 

Model XL— He that spares vice wrongs virtue. 

(a) This is a complex, declarative sentence; it contains 
a proposition and a clause, and declares something. 
He wrongs virtue is the proposition, and that spares vice 
is the clause. He is the simple subject of the propo- 
sition, and wrongs is the simple predicate. The subject 
is modified by the clause that spares vice, an adjective 
element. He that spares vice is the complex subject 
of the proposition. The predicate is modified by virtue. 
an objective element. Wrongs virtue is the complex 
predicate of the proposition. 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 189 

That is the subject of the clause, and spares is the 
simple predicate. The predicate is modified by vice, an 
objective element. Spares vice is the complex predicate. 
TJiat is also the connective. 

This analysis may be written thus: 

He wrongs 

that spares virtueO 

viceO 

Obs. — Place the subject of the modifying clause under the 
word which it modifies, and the connective under the word which 
it modifies. When the connective is not a modifier, place it (fol- 
lowed by the subject) under the word which the clause modifies. 

Underscore all subordinate connectives to indicate their office. 

(b) For a short form of analysis the following may 
be used: 

A complex, declarative sentence, of which He wrongs 
virtue is the proposition. Of the proposition the subject 
pronoun He is modified by the adjective clause that 
spares vice. The predicate verb is modified by the 
object noun virtue. 

EXERCISE. 

272. (a) Analyze the following sentences: 

1. John has the watch that I sold. 

2. The pupil that studies will learn. 

3. We love the home where we were born. 

4. Days which are gone never return. 

5. The reason why I came is understood. 

6. A man who is rich is envied. 

7. We never can be deathless till we die. 

(b) Construct four complex sentences, each contain- 
ing a clause used as an adjective element. Write the 
analysis of each. 



190 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

273. The Clause as an Objective Element. 

Model XII. — I knew that he would come soon. 

This is a complex, declarative sentence, of which / 
knew is the proposition, and that he would come soon, 
the clause. 

/ is the subject of the proposition, and kneiu is the 
simple predicate. The predicate is modified by the 
clause that he would come soon, an objective element. 
Knew that he ivould come soon is the complex predicate. 

He is the subject of the clause, and would come 
is the simple predicate. The predicate is modified by 
soon, an adverbial element. Would come soon is the 
complex predicate of the clause. That is the connective. 

This analysis may be written thus: 

I knew 

that he would come 

soon 

274. The Clause as an Adverbial Element. 

Model XIII. — Go where duty calls thee. 

This is a complex, imperative sentence, of which Go 
(thou) is the proposition, and where duty calls thee is 
the clause. Thou, understood, is the subject of the 
proposition, and go is the simple predicate. The predi- 
cate is modified by the clause where duty calls thee, 
an adverbial element. Go where duty calls thee is the 
complex predicate of the proposition. 

Duty is the subject of the clause, and calls is the 
simple predicate. The predicate is modified by thee, an 
objective element, and also by where, an adverbial ele- 
ment. Where calls thee is the complex predicate. Where 
is the connective. 



LETTER WRITING. 191 

This analysis may be written thus: 

(thou) Go 

duty calls 

theeO 
where 

EXERCISE. 

275. (a) Analyze the following sentences: 

1. Make friends when you can. 

2. I heard music as I approached the house. 

3. We hurried because the storm increased. 

4- The weary soldiers stopped wherever night overtook them. 
5. Will he come if the rain ceases? 

(b) Construct four complex sentences containing clauses 
used as adverbial elements. Write the analysis of each. 



LETTER WRITING. 

276. Study the following letter. Notice the ease 
and gracefulness of the writer's style of expression, and 
the beauty of his thoughts: 

A LETTER. 

Passy, 22d April, 1784. 
My Dear Mr. Webb: 

I received yours of the 15th instant and the memorial it 
enclosed. The account they give of your situation grieves me. 
I send you herewith a bill for ten louis d'ors. 1 I do not pretend 
to give you such a sum; I only lend it to you. When you shall 
return to your country with a good character, you can not fail 
of getting into some business that will in time enable you to 
pay all your debts. In that case, when you meet with another 
honest man in similar distress, you must pay me by lending this 
sum to him, enjoining him to discharge the debt by a like 



Note: i About $40. 



192 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

operation, when he shall be able and shall meet with such 
another opportunity. I hope it may thus go through many 
hands before it meets with a knave that will stop its progress. 
This is a trick of mine for doing a deal of good with a little 
money. I am not rich enough to afford much in good works, 
and so am obliged to be cunning, and make the most of a little. 
With best wishes for the success of your memorial and your 
future prosperity, I am, dear sir, 

Your most obedient servant, 1 

Benj. Franklin. 



Note: *A form not used to-day. How would yon close your letter? 

Having made yourself familiar with the lesson con- 
veyed in Franklin's letter, try to write a similar one. 
You may imagine you have accommodated some poor 
boy or girl with a good book, or a pair of skates, or 
have done him or her some other good service. 

Write a letter to your brother in New Orleans, thank- 
ing him for a book he has sent you — perhaps "Little 
Lord Fauntleroy" — and telling what you think of it. 

Write an imaginary letter from a puppy to an express 
company about to convey him to his purchaser in San 
Francisco. Let your letter describe the kennel he wishes 
to travel in, the meals he wishes to have, and the hours 
he wishes them served, etc. 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 

277. A Compound Sentence is one which contains 
two or more propositions; as, 

1. Birds carol and plowboys whistle. 

2. Men must work or they will be worthless. 

8. We must eat to live, but we should not live to eat. 



I 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 193 

The propositions forming a compound sentence, being 
of equal rank, are called Members. They are united by 
the coordinate conjunctions and, hut, or, nor, and some- 
times by for, yet, hence, etc. 

Conjunctions, also certain other words, understood or 
easily supplied, are often omitted from the compound 
sentence; as, 

1. War has ceased, peace has come. 

2. Worms crawl, fishes swim, birds fly. 

3. They are poor, but (they are) intelligent. 



278. Analysis — The Compound Sentence. 

Model XIV. — Most rocks are hard, but some maybe cut with 
a knife. 

This is a compound, declarative sentence, of which 
most rocks are hard is the first member, and some may 
he cut with a knife is the second. Rocks is the simple 
subject of the first, and are hard is the simple predicate. 
Rocks is limited by some, an adjective element. Some 
rocks is the complex subject. Some is the subject of 
the second member, and may he cut, the simple predi- 
cate, is modified by the phrase with a knife, a complex 
adjective element, of which knife, the basis, is modified 
by a, an adjective element. May he cut with a knife is 
the complex predicate. But is the connective, uniting 
the two members. 

This analysis may be written thus: 

rocks are X hard 

Most 
but 

some may be cut 

with knife 



194 PHI MARY GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE. 
279. (a) Analyze the following sentences: 

1. I go but I return. 

2. They read poetry; I read prose. 

3. The frost comes and the flowers fade. 

4. Precious stones are lifeless, but they are fadeless. 

5. The man dies, but his memory lives. 

6. Govern your passions or they will govern you. 

7. Keep a secret, it will not burst you. 

8. He is witty, but (he is) vulgar. 

9. He will not come, nor will he send another. 

(b) Write four compound sentences — two with con- 
junctions and two without. Write the analysis of each. 



SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS. 

1. Self-love is a mote in every man's eye. 

2. Wounds made by words are hard to heal. 

3. Every man's reason is eveiy man's oracle. 

4. It is costly wisdom that is bought by bad experience. 

5. Prayer leads the heart to God and He always listens. 

6. He that will not be ruled by the rudder must be ruled 

by the rock. 

7. Hope comes with smiles to cheer the hour of pain. 

8. To relieve the distressed was his constant endeavor. 

9. Choose an author as you choose a friend. 

10. The committee are unable to agree on their report. 

11. A desire to excel leads to eminence. 

12. I come not here to talk. 

13. The fat of the body is fuel laid away for use. 

14. Peter denied that he knew his Lord. 

15. Where the bee sucks honey, the spider sucks poison. 

16. Make hay while the sun shines. 

17. Every man desires to live long, but no man would 

be old. 



SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS. 195 

18. When the righteous rule, the people rejoice. 

19. Some are born great, some achieve greatness. 

20. Wealth acquired dishonestly usually becomes a curse. 

21. Recreation is a sponge that wipes from the brain all 

toil and turmoil. 

22. A pitcher that goes often to the fountain becomes broken 

at last. 

23. Enthusiasm is the genius of sincerity, and truth wins no 

victories without it. 

24. God puts a good root in the little pig's way. 

25. Fickle men are apt to rove. 

26. If fields are prisons, where is liberty? 

27. Justice is blind; he knows nobody. 

28. If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. 

29. Death entombs the body; life entombs the soul. 

30. Affronts are harmless where men are worthless. 

31. A blow with a word is deeper than (is) a blow with a sword. 

32. Oh, no! we never mention her. 

33. Everything comes, if a man will only work and wait. 

34. Sin has many tools, but a lie is the handle that fits 

them all. 

35. Good words are better than bad strokes (are). 

36. They that govern the most make the least noise. 

37. Though he were a giant, yet I should not fear him. 

38. Straws show which way the wind blows. 

39. The sower went forth to sow. 

40. Men will judge us by the company we keep. 

41. The water is smooth where the brook is deep. 

42. The pupils had a long lesson to learn. 

43. He was unwilling to tell where he went. 

44- They told us where they went, what they did, and whom 
they saw. 

45. God sent His singers upon earth 
With songs of gladness and of mirth. 

46. Men may come and men may go, 
But I go on forever. — Tennyson. 

47. The vine still clings to the mouldering wall, 
But at every gust the dead leaves fall, 

And the day is dark and dreary. — Longfellow. 



196 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

48. The outward forms the inward man reveal, 
We guess the pulp before we cut the peel. 

— O. W. Holmes. 

49. Day hath put on his jacket, and around 
His burning bosom buttoned it with stars. 

— O. W. Holmes. 

50. Be firm! one constant element in luck 
Is genuine, solid, old Teutonic pluck. 

— O. W. Holmes. 

51. The sun stepped down from his golden throne, 

And lay in the silent sea, 
And the Lily had folded her satin leaves, 

For a sleepy thing was she; 
What is the Lily dreaming of? 

Why crisp the waters blue? 
See, see she is lifting her varnished lid! 

Her white leaves are glistening through! 

The Rose is cooling his burning cheek 

In the lap of the breathless tide; 
The Lily hath sisters fresh and fair, 

That would lie by the Rose's side; 
He would love her better than all the rest, 

And he would be fond and true; 
But the Lily unfolded her weary lids, 

And looked at the sky so blue. 

— Holmes' "Star and Lily." 

52. Rats! 

They fought the dogs, and killed the cats, 

And bit the babies in the cradles, 
And ate the cheeses out of the vats, 

And licked the soup from the cook's own ladles, 
Split open the kegs of salted sprats, 
Made nests inside men's Sunday hats, 
And even spoiled the women's chats, 

By drowning their speaking 

With shrieking and squeaking 
In fifty different sharps and flats. — Browning. 






SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 



The composition exercises on grammatical subjects, such, as the 
noun, adverbs, and phrases, etc. , suggest similar work in the study 
of arithmetic, history, and geography. 

These will review and fix firmly in mind the general subject 
just studied, or the work of the week, month, or term. 

The following is a suggestive exercise after the study of Frac- 
tions in arithmetic: 

Outline. 

1. The terms — their meaning — the reciprocal. 

2. Kinds of fractions — as to value — as to form — decimals. 

3. Principles — various operations: {a) peculiar to fractions; 
(b) general. 

Write an outline of the subject you have just finished study- 
ing in geography. In accord with the outline, write an account 
of the leading facts you learned from the study of the subject. 

LIST OF SELECTIONS FOR COMPOSITION WORK. 

Below is given a list of prose and poetic selections from 
literature which may be utilized for literary and language studies. 
Some of these are worthy of memorizing. They are arranged for 
convenience according to an alphabetical list of the authors: 

Night, Blake. 

Peter Cooper, Bolton {Sarah K.). 

The Pied Piper, Browning. 

The Ride from Ghent to Aix, " 

Planting of the Apple Tree, Bryant. 

Abraham Lincoln " 

To a Waterfowl, 

The Apple, Burroughs. 

Finding a Bee Tree, " 

Cincinnatus, Church. 

197 



198 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

The Prairie on Fire, Cooper. 

How Crusoe Made Pottery Defoe. 

Duty, Emerson. 

The Snow Storm 

The Blue and the Gray, Finch. 

Nathan Hale, " 

The Labors of Hercules Francillon. 

The Whistle, Franklin. 

The Great Stone Face, Hawthorne.. 

The Golden Touch, 

The Ambitious Guest " 

Hugh Idle and Mr. Toil, 

The Boys, Holmes. 

The Broomstick Train, 

Lexington, ' . . " 

The Last Leaf, 

Dare to do Right, Hughes. 

Prairie Dogs, Irving. 

Lake Tahoe, Jackson (II. II). 

Three Fishers, Kingsky. 

Paul Revere's Ride, Longfellow. 

Selection from "Hiawatha," " 

The Builders, 

The Psalm of Life 

The First Snowfall, Lowell. 

To the Dandelion, 

The Heritage, " 

What is so Rare as a Day in June? ... " 

Odin's Search for Wisdom, .... Mabie's Old Norse Stories. 

Woodman, Spare That Tree, Morris. 

Sheridan's Ride, Read. 

Over Hill, Over Dale, from "Midsummer 

Night's Dream," Shakspere. 

The Nutcrackers of Nutcrackers' Lodge, . . Stowe. 

The Violet, Taylor. 

The Brook, Tennyson. 

Flower in the Crannied Wall, 

O Yet We Trust, from "In Memoriam," . " 

Lullaby, from "The Princess," " 

Making Maple Sugar, Warner. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 199 

Barbara Frietcbie, WMttier. 

In School Days, 

The Fish I Didn't Catch, 

The Huskers, 

Don Fulano, Winthrop. 

To a Skylark, Wordsworth. 

Daffodils, 

We are Seven, 

March, 

LIST OF SERVICEABLE BOOKS. 

Books recommended, on account of their excellent material, 
for literary composition and study: 
iEsop's "Fables." 

Andrews's "Seven Sisters," "Ten Boys," and "Each and All." 
Anecdotes, Fables, etc. (Boston School Supply Company.) 
Baldwin's "Old Fairy Stories," "Old Greek Stories," "Old Stories 

of the East." 
Beckwith's "In Mythland." 
Bellamy and Goodwin's ' ' Open Sesame " Series. 
Chase's "Stories of Birdland." 
Church's "Stories of the Old World." 
Cooke's "Nature Myths and Other Stories." 
De Garmo's "Fairy Tales," "Tales of Troy." 
Eggleston's "Stories of American Life and Adventuie," "Stories 

of Great Americans for Little Ones." 
Eliot's "Poetry for Children." 
Field's "With Trumpet and Drum." 
Firth's "Stories of Old Greece." 
Francillon's "Gods and Heroes." 
Grimm's "Fairy Tales." 
Guerber's "Myths of Greece and Rome," "Myths of Northern 

Lands." 
Hale's "Golden Book of Choice Reading." 
Hawthorne's "Tanglewood Tales," "Wonder Book." 
Holbrook's "American Myths." 
Humphrey's "Little Folks of Other Lands." 
Kingsley's "Greek Heroes" and "Water Babies." 
Lamb's "Adventures of Ulysses," "Tales from Shakspere." 



200 PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

Lang's "Blue Poetry Book for Schools." 

Lovejoy's "Nature in Verse." 

Mabie's "Norse Stories." 

Montgomery's "Heroic Ballads." 

Poulsson's "In the Child World." 

Pratt's "Book of Fables," "Stories of Colonial Children." 

Richards's "Five-Minute Stories." 

Scudder's "Fables and Folk Stories." 

Smythe's "Old-Time Stories." 

Stevenson's "Child's Gai'den of Verses." 

Wbittier's "Child Life." 

Wiggin and Smith's "The Story Hour." 

Wiltse's "Kindergarten Stories and Morning Talks." 

Books which it is thought may be helpful in the 6tudy of 
language and literature, and in the preparation for composition 
work. The starred (*) titles are especially recommended: 

Abbott's "How to Tell the Parts of Speech." 

Adler's "Moral Instruction of Children." 

Arnold's "Way Marks for Teachers." 
*Bates's "Talks on Writing English." 
*Brown's Annotated Edition "Report of the Committee of Fifteen." 

Buehler's "Practical Exercise in English." 

Compayre's "Lectures on Pedagogy." 
*DeGarmo's "Essentials of Method." 

Emerson's "History of the English Language." 

Fitch's "Lectures on Teaching." 

Hill's "Our English." 

Jespersen's "Progress in Language." 

Keeler and Davis's "Studies in English Composition." 

Lounsbury's "History of the English Language." 

Patridge's "Quincy Methods." 

*Rand-McNally Advanced Grammar and Composition. 
*Rand-McNally Series of Readers. 

Scott and Denney's "Paragraph Writing." 
*Spaulding's "The Problem of Elementary Composition." 
*Thurber's "Admonitions as to the Primary Teaching of English." 

White's "Pedagogy" and "School Management." 
*Whitney's "Language and the Study of Language." 

Woodward's "English in the Schools." 



TOPICAL INDEX. 



PAGE 

Abbreviations, 26 

Rule for Writing, .... 26 

Abstract Nouns, ..... 22, 23 

Active Voice, 103 

Adjective, Clauses, . . . 134, 135 
Element, Forms of the, . .166 

Elements, 156 

Phrases, 129, 130 

Pronouns, ...... 32, 33 

The, 36 

Adjectives, . . . . . . 19, 36, 42 

Adverbs Formed from, ... 54 

Article, 39 

Classes of, ....... 37 

Comparison of, 79 

Inflection of, 79 

Interrogative, ...... 39 

Limiting, .... 33, 37, 38, 39 

Numeral, _ . 39 

or Adverbs, Words Used as, _ 83 
Outline for Composition on, . 43 

Predicate, . 46 

Proper, _ 37 

Qualifying, .37 

that are Inflected to Show 

Number, 82 

Adverbial, Clauses, . . . 134, 136 
Element, Forms of the, _ .168 
Elements, ..... 156, 158 
Phrases, ...... 129, 131 

Adverbs, 19, 51, 52 

Classes of, 52, 53 

Comparison of, ..... 82 

Conjunctive, 53 

Formed from Adjectives, . . 54 
Inflection of, ....... 79 

Interrogative, .53 

of Manner, 53, 54 



PAGE 

Adverbs, of Place, . . . . 52, 54 

of Time, ....... 52, 54 

Outline for Composition on, . 57 
A Fancy (Study of a Poem), . . 93 
Agreement of Verb and Subject, 

105, 106 
Rule for the, ...... 105 

A Letter of Benjamin Franklin's, 

191, 192 

Analysis, of the Sentence, . . .175 

Selections for, . . .194, 195, 196 

The Compound Sentence, . . 193 

Andersen, Hans Christian, ... 43 

An Old-Fashioned Schoolroom 

(Composition Ex.), ... 29 

Antecedent, The, 32, 137 

Arrangement of the Elements, . 169 

Article, Adjectives, ..... 39 

Definite, ........ 40 

Articles, Indefinite, 39 

A Snowstorm (Composition Ex.), 132 
Attribute, Forms of the, . . . 155 
Attributes, ....... 45, 46 

of Infinitives, ...... 120 

of Participles, .... 115, 116 

Auxiliaries, Outline for Compo- 
sition on, ...... 103 

Rules for the Proper Use of 
the, ....... 95, 96 

Auxiliary Verbs, ...... 94 

Be, 94,97,105 

"BeiDg a Boy," From, .... 78 
Books, List of Serviceable, 199, 200 

Boys, The, . 60 

Buckwheat, The (Composition Ex.), 42 
Burroughs, John, ...... 123 

Business Letters, . . . 171, 172, 173 



201 



202 



TOPICAL INDEX. 



PAGE 

Can, 94, 95 

Capitals, Rules for the Use of, 

11, 25, 20 

Case, 59 

Forms, 74 

Nominative, 74 

Objective, 74 

Outline for Composition on, - 78 
Possessive, 74 

Cautions, 29, 54, 122 

"Child's Garden of Verses," 

quoted from, 102 

Classes of Adjectives, .... 37 

of Adverbs, 52 

of Words, _ 19 

Classification, of Clauses, ... 134 
of Nouns, The, ..... 20 

of Phrases, ....... 127 

of Pronouns, The, .... 32 

of the Sentence, 174 

of Verbs, ....... 44 

Clause, as an Adjective Element, 

The, 188 

as an Adverbial Element, The, 190 
as an Objective Element, The, 190 

Clauses, 133 

Adjective, 134, 135 

Adverbial, 134, 136 

Classification of, .... . 134 
Outline for Composition on, . 141 
Substantive, .... 134, 135 

Collective Nouns, 22, 23 

Common, Gender, ...... G9 

Noun. The, 21 

Comparative Degree, ... 79, 80 

Comparison, . . . _ . . . 59, 79 
by adding r or er, .... 80 
by More and Most, .... 80 

Degrees of, 79 

Irregular, 81 

of Adjectives, 79 

of Adverbs, 82 

Outline for Composition on, . 85 

Complex, Predicate, The, . . .152 
Sentence, The, .... 174, 188 
Subject, 152 

Complex Elements, . . . 104, 176 
Infinitive as Subject or as 

Attribute, ...... 184 



PAGE 

Complex Elements, Objective, . .177 
Participle as an Adjective 

Element, 183 

Participle as Subject or as 

Object, 182 

Prepositional, 186 

Compositions, 17, 29, 34, 42, 50, 55, 65, 72, 

77,84,93,102, 112,123, 

132, 139, 149 

Descriptive, . 17, 29, 77, 123, 132 

Grammatical, 30, 35, 43, 57, 66, 73, 

78, 85, 103, 113, 124, 132, 141, 150 

Letter Writing, 27, 161, 102, 171, 

172, 173, 180, 181, 191, 192 

Narrative, 42,50,65,72,112,149 

Poetical, .... 34, 93, 102, 139 

Scientific, 55, 84 

Composition Work, List of Selec- 
tions for, ... 197, 198, 199 
Compound, Infinitives, . . . .118 
Personal Pronouns, .... 32 
Relative Pronouns, .... 138 
Sentence, The, . . 174, 192, 193 
Compound Elements, .... 164 

Objective, 178 

Principal, 177 

Conjunctions, 19, 142 

and Interjections, .... 142 

Classified, ill 

Coordinate, 144 

Outline for Composition on, . 150 

Subordinate, 144 

Conjunctive Adverbs, .... 53 

Connectives, 145 

Contractions, . 27 

Coordinate Conjunction, A, . Ill 

Copula, 45 

Copulative Verb, The, . . . 44, 45 
Could 95 

Declarative Sentences, ... 14, 15 

Declension, 59, 75 

of Nouns, 75 

of Pronouns, 76 

Definite Article, 40 

Defoe, Daniel, 73 

Degrees of Comparison, ... 79 

Direct Quotations, 147 

Do, 94,96 



TOPICAL INDEX. 



203 



PAGE 

Elements, Adjective, 156 

Adverbial, 156, 158 

Arrangement of the, . . .169 
Classified, The, ..... 151 
Classified According to Struc- 
ture, 164 

Complex, 164, 176 

Compound, 164 

Independent, .... 160, 187 

Objective, 156, 157 

of the Sentence, 151 

Principal, 151, 153 

Simple, 164, 175 

Subordinate, .... 151, 156 
Elm, The (Composition Ex.), . . 17 

English Language, 10 

Erosion (Composition Ex.), ... 84 
Essential Parts of the Sentence, . 12 
Exclamatory Sentences, . . 14, 15 

"Fables and Folk Stories," quoted 

from, 150 

Family Name, The, 24 

Fancy, A (Study of a Poem), . 93 

Feminine Gender, 69 

First Person, ....... 59 

Form, Phrases Classified According 

to, 127 

Sentences Classified According 

to, 174 

Forms, of Mode and Tense, Tabu- 
lar Statement of the, . . 92 
of Relative Pronouns, The, . 138 
of the Adjective Element, . 166 
of the Adverbial Element, . 168 

of the Attribute, 155 

of the Objective Element, . 167 

of the Predicate, 165 

of the Subject, ..... 164 

Person and Number, . . .105 

Franklin, Benjamin, ..... 192 

Frost, The (Composition Ex.), 139, 140 

Future, Tense, . 90 

Perfect Tense, . . . . 90, 91 

Gender, 59 

Forms, ....... 68, 69 

Forms of Pronouns, .... 71 

Methods of Distinguishing, 69, 70 



PAGE 

Gender, Outline for Composition 

on, ........ 73 

Given Name, The, ...... 24 

Gould, Hannah Flagg, . . . .140 

Grammatical, Predicate, . 152, 154 
Subject, 152,153 

Have, . . 94 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel, . . .29, 132 
Heroism (Composition Ex.), . . 112 
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, ... 60 
Hound, The (Composition Ex.), . 123 
How Lincoln Studied Grammar 

(Composition Ex.), . . 65,66 
How Robinson Crusoe Built a 

Boat (Composition Ex.), . 72 
Hyacinth, The (Composition Ex.), 

55,56 

Imperative, Mode, The, .... 88 

Sentences, 14, 15 

Indefinite Articles, ..... 39 

Independent Elements, . . 160, 187 
Indicative Mode, The, ... 86, 87 
Indirect Quotations, ..... 148 

Infinitive Phrases, .... 127, 128 

Infinitives, ........ 118 

Attributes of, ...... 120 

Modifiers and Attributes of, . 120 
Modifiers of, ...... 120 

Simple and Compound, . .118 
Uses of the, .... 121, 122 

Inflection, ........ 58 

of Adjectives, 79 

of Adverbs, 79 

of Nouns, . . . . . . 59, 75 

of Pronouns, 59, 76 

of the Verb, ...... 86 

Summary of, ...... Ill 

Informal, Invitation, An, . . .180 
Notes, ........ 179 

Initials, ......... 25 

Rule for Writing, .... 25 

Interjections, 19, 146 

Interrogative, Adjectives, . . 39, 41 

Adverbs, 53 

Pronouns, ...... 32, 33 

Sentences, 14, 15 

Intransitive Verbs, . . . . 47, 48 



204 



TOPICAL INDEX. 



PAGE 

Irregular, Comparison, .... 81 
Verbs, 97, 98 

Verbs, List of, . . 99, 100, 101 
Irving, Washington, 51 

Kinds, of Pronouns, 33 

of Sentences, 14 

Language, 9 

Defined, 10 

English, 10 

Oral, . . .' 10 

Written, 10 

Letter Writing — 

Business, . . . . 171, 172, 173 
Friendship, .... 161, 162, 191 

Informal Notes, 179 

Invitations, ..... 180, 181 
Model from Franklin, . 191, 192 
Superscriptions, ..... 27 

"Life of Lincoln," Adapted from, 

65, 66 

Limiting, Adjectives, . 33, 37, 38, 39 
Adjectives Classified, ... 39 

Lincoln Studied Grammar, How, 

65, 66 

List, of Irregular Verbs, . 99, 100, 101 
of Selections for Composition 

Work, .... 197, 198, 199 
of Serviceable Books, . 199, 200 
of the Principal Prepositions, 126 

" Little- Folk Lyrics," From, . 34, 93 

Logical, Predicate, 152 

Subject, 152 

Manner, Adverbs of, ..... 53 
Martial Turkey, The (Composition 

Ex.), 77 

Masculine Gender, 68 

May, ......... 94, 95 

Methods of Distinguishing Gender, 

69,70 

Might, . 95 

Mode, ......... 59, 86 

Forms, 86 

Imperative, 88 

Indicative, 86 

Potential, 87 

Subjunctive, 87 



PAGE 

Mode and Tense, Outline for Com- 
position on, ..... 94 
Tabular Statement of the 

Forms of, 92 

Modes, Tense Forms in all the, . 91 
Modifiers, and Attributes of 

Infinitives, 120 

and Attributes of Participles, 

115,116 

of Infinitives, 120 

of Participles, .... 115, 116 
More and Most, Comparison by, . 80 
Must, 95 

Names, 24 

Family, 24 

Given, 21 

Several Rules for Writing, . 25 

Surname, 24 

Neuter Gender, 69 

Nominative Case, ...... 74 

Noun, The, 20 

Nouns, . . 19, 20 

Abstract, ...... 22, 23 

Classification of, 20 

Collective, 22, 23 

Common, 21 

Declension of, 75 

Inflection of, 59 

Outline for Composition on, . 30 

Predicate, 46 

Proper, 21,22 

Some Short Forms of, . . . 24 

Number, 59, 105 

Forms, 61, 105 

Forms of Personal Pronouns, 66 
Numeral Adjectives, . . . . 39, 41 

Objective, Case, 74 

Element, Forms of the, . . 167 

Elements, 156, 157 

Object of a Transitive Verb, . . 47 
Oral Language, 10 

Paragraphs, 30 

Participial Phrases, 127 

Participle, Uses of the, . . . .117 

Participles, Attributes of, . 115,116 

Modifiers and Attributesof , 115, 116 



TOPICAL INDEX. 



205 



PAGE 

Participles, Modifiers of, . 115, 116 

Present and Past, . . . .114 

Parts, of Speech, . . 19, 36, 125, 142 

Principal, of the Verb, - _ . 97 

Passive Voice, .104 

Past, Indicative, ...... 97 

Participles, .... 89, 97, 114 

Perfect Tense, ...... 90 

Tense, .90 

"Pepacton," quoted from, . . 123 
Person, ........ 59, 105 

Forms, . . . . . . . 59, 105 ' 

Personal Pronouns, 32 

Classified as Simple and Com- 
pound, ...:... 32 
Compound, ....... 32 

Number Forms of, _ . . . 66 
Rules for the Use of the, . 67, 68 
Simple, ........ 32 

Person and Number Forms, . . 105 

Outline for Composition on, . 66 

Phrases, ......... 127 

Adjective, 129, 130 

Adverbial, ..... 129, 131 

Classification of, 127 

Classified According to Form, 127 
Classified According to Use, . 129 
Infinitive, ..... 120, 128 

Outline for Composition on, . 132 
Participial, ....... 127 

Prepositional, .... 127, 128 

Substantive, 129 

Place, Adverbs of, .... . 52, 54 

Plural Number, ...... 61 

Plurals, Rules for the Formation 

of the, . . . . 61, 62, 63, 64 

Poem, 93 

Study of a, . . 34, 93 102, 139 

Positive Degree, .79 

Possessive Case, 74 

Potential Mode, The, ..... 87 
Predicate, Adjectives, .... 46 

Complex, . 152 

Forms of the, 165 

Grammatical, .... 152, 154 

Logical, ........ 152 

Nouns, ........ 46 

Simple, ........ 152 

The, ........ 12, 13 



PAGE 

Prepositional Phrases, . . 127, 128 

Prepositions, 19, 125 

List of the Principal, . . .126 
Relation Words, 125 

Present, Indicative, ..... 97 

Participles, ....... 114 

Perfect Tense, ...... 89 

Tense, . 89 

Principal, Elements, . . . 151, 153 
Parts of the Verb, . . . . 97 
Subordinate Conjunctions, 

The, ........ 145 

Pronoun, Outline for Composition 

on, ........ 35 

The, ......... 31 

Pronouns, . . . . . . . 19, 31 

Adjective, 32, 33 

Classification of, .... 32 
Compound Personal, ... 32 
Compound Relative, .... 138 

Declension of, 76 

Gender Forms of, .... 71 
Inflection of, .... . 59, 76 
Interrogative, . . . . . 32, 33 

Kinds of, .32 

Personal, . 32 

Relative, . . . . . . . 32, 137 

Simple Personal, ..... 32 

Simple Relative, ..... 138 

Proper, Adjectives, ..... 37 
Noun, Thp, . . . . . . 21, 22 

Propositions, . 133 

Punctuation, Rules for, . 15, 146, 160 

Qualifying Adjectives, .... 37 

Quotations, ........ 147 

Direct, ........ 147 

Indirect, 148 

Rules to be Observed in the 

Use of, 148 

Read, Thos. Buchanan, .... 65 
Regular Verbs, ....... 97 

Relation Words, 125 

Relative, Pronoun, The, . . 32, 137 
Pronouns, Compound, . . .138 
Pronouns, Simple, . . . .138 
Pronouns, The Forms of, . . 138 



206 



TOPICAL INDEX. 



PAGE 

Reproduction Exercises — 

Poetry, .... 34, 93, 102, 139 
Prose, 29, 42. 50, 65, 72, 112, 132, 149 
Return of Rip Van Winkle, The 

(Composition Ex.), - - 50, 51 

Rhyme, 93 

Rip Van Winkle, The Return of 

(Composition Ex.), - . 50, 51 

Root-Word, The, 59 

Rule, for Punctuation for the 
Adjective and Adverbial 

Clause, 136 

for Punctuation in a Series, . 49 
for the Agreement of Verb 

and Subject, ..... 105 

for Writing Abbreviations, . 26 

for Writing Initials, .... 25 

Rules, for Punctuation, . 15, 146, 160 

for the Formation of the 

Plurals, . . . . 61, 62, 63, 64 
for the Proper Use of the 

Auxiliaries, . . . . 95, 96 
for the Use of Capitals, 11, 25, 26 
for the Use of Personal 

Pronouns, . . . . . 67, 68 
for Writing Names, .... 25 
to be Observed in the Use of 
Quotations, 148 

Scene, From The Closing, ... 65 
Schoolroom, An Old-Fashioned 

(Composition Ex.), ... 29 

Scudder, Horace E., 150 

Second Person, 59 

Selections for Analysis, . 194, 195, 196 
Selections for Composition Work, 

List of, ... . 197, 198, 199 

Sentence, Analysis of the, . . .175 

Classification of the, . . .174 

Defined, The, 11 

Elements of the, 151 

Essential Parts of the, ... 12 
Outline for Composition on the, 18 

The, 10 

Sentences, Classified, .... 14 
Classified According to Form, 174 

Complex, 174, 188 

Compound, .... 174, 192, 193 
Declarative, 14, 15 



PAGE 

Sentences, Exclamatory, . . 14, 15 

Imperative, 14, 15 

Interrogative, 14, 15 

Kinds of, 14 

Simple, 174, 175 

Series, Rules for Punctuation in a, 49 

The, 49 

Serviceable Books, List of, . 199, 200 
Several Rules for Writing Names, 25 

Shall, % 

Sherman, Frank D., . . . .34, 93 

Should, 96 

Silt, 84 

Simple, Elements, .... 164, 175 

Infinitives, 118 

Personal Pronouns, .... 32 

Predicate, 152 

Relative Pronouns, .... 138 
Sentence, The, . . . 174, 175 

Subject, 152 

Singular Number, 61 

Snowstorm, A (Composition Ex.), 132 
Speech, Parts of, . . 19, 36, 125, 142 

Stanza, 34, 93 

Stevenson, Robert Louis, . . .102 
Storm and Hill (.Composition Ex.), 84 
Subject, Forms of the, .... 164 

Complex, 152 

Grammatical, .... 152, 153 

Logical, 152 

Simple, 152 

The, 12 

Subjunctive Mode, The, .... 87 
Subordinate, Conjunctions, . . 144 

Elements, 151, 156 

Substantive, Clauses, 134 

Phrases, 129 

Summary of Inflection, . . . .111 
Superlative Degree, . . . . 79, 80 

Superscriptions, 27 

Surname, The, 24 

Tabular Statement of the Forms 

of Mode and Tense, . . 92 

Tarbell, Adapted from, .... 66 

Tense, 59,89 

Forms, 88 

Forms in all the Modes, . . 91 

Third Person, 60 



TOPICAL INDEX. 



207 



PAGE 

Thoughts and Words, .... 9 

Time, Adverbs of, 52, 54 

To, ........... 119 

Transitive, Verb, Object of, . . 47 
Verbs, ........ 47 

Turkey, The Martial (Composition 

Ex.), ....... 77, 78 

Use, Phrases Classified According 

to, ........ 129 

Uses, of the Infinitives, . . 121, 122 
of the Participle, ..... 117 

Verb, Copulative, . . . . . 44, 45 
Inflection of the, ..... 86 
Principal Parts of the, ... 97 
The, ......... 43 

Verbals, _ . 113, 114 

Outline for Composition on, . 124 

Verb and Subject, Agreement of, 

105, 106 

Verbs, 19, 43 

Auxiliary, 94 



PAGE 

Verbs, Classification of, .... 44 

Intransitive, 47, 48 

Irregular, . . . . . . 97, 98 

Regular, 97 

Transitive, ....... 47 

Verse, 34, 93 

Voice, -.._..... 59, 103 

Active, 103 

Forms, ........ 103 

Outline for Composition on, _ 113 
Passive, ...... 103, 104 

Warner, Charles Dudley, ... 78 
Where Go the Boats ? (Study of 

a Poem), 102 

Will, 94, 96 

Wishes (Study of a Poem), . . 34 
Wolf and the Lamb, The (Com- 
position Ex.), - - 149,150 
Words, Classes of, ..... 19 
Used as Adjectives or Adverbs, 83 

Would, . 96 

Written Language, ..... 10 



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